Pelestarian dan kelestarian alam Indonesia adalah merupakan aset dan modal dasar bagi pembangunan bangsa. Kini makin disadari bahwa upaya pelestarian alam bukanlah hanya demi kelestarian alam itu sendiri, namun hakekatnya adalah untuk kelangsungan pembangunan bangsa dan kesejahteraan manusia. Manusia adalah bagian integral dari ekosistem alam itu sendiri.
Selama ini kawasan konservasi sebagai tabungan kekayaan alam yang dimiliki oleh rakyat Indonesia belumlah termanfaatkan secara maksimal bagi kesejahteraan secara langsung bagi masyarakat di sekitarnya dan bagi keanekaragaman hayati yang ada didalamnya. Kawasan konservasi lebih sering dianggap sebagai sebuah beban dalam upaya pelestariaannya dan juga kawasan konservasi sering dianggap tidak memberikan manfaat langsung bagi masyarakat. Kawasan konservasi yang ada di Indonesia, khususnya di Kalimantan Timur belumlah memberikan manfaat langsung bagi masyarakat sehingga menyebabkan masyarakat belum merasa memiliki kawasan tersebut dan tidak ikut bertanggung jawab bagi kerusakan kawasan tersebut.
Dewasa ini banyak negara di dunia yang menganggap pariwisata sebagai satu diantara aspek terpenting dan integral dari strategi pengembangan negara. Banyak literatur kepariwisataan yang memberikan ulasan bahwa sektor pariwisata memberikan keuntungan ekonomi terhadap negara bersangkutan. Keuntungan-keuntungan ini biasanya diperoleh dari pendapatan nilai tukar mata uang asing, pendapatan pemerintah, stimulasi pengembangan regional, dan penciptaan tenaga kerja serta peningkatkan pendapatannya.
Secara umum, pariwisata telah menjadi salah satu industri yang terpenting di dunia. Menurut Dewan Perjalanan dan Pariwisata Dunia (World Travel and Tourism Council - WTTC), saat ini pariwisata merupakan industri terbesar di dunia dengan menghasilkan pendapatan dunia lebih dari US$3,5 triliun pada tahun 1993 atau 6% dari pendapatan kotor dunia. Pariwisata merupakan industri yang lebih besar daripada industri kendaraan, baja, elektronik maupun pertanian. Industri pariwisata mempekerjakan 127 juta pekerja (satu dalam 15 pekerja di dunia). Secara keseluruhan, industri pariwisata diharapkan meningkat dua kali lipat pada tahun 2005 (WTTC, 1992).
Indonesia memiliki kekayaan sumberdaya alam dengan keanekaragaman yang tinggi. Sumberdaya alam yang berada di kawasan hutan memiliki potensi yang dapat dimanfaatkan dan dikembangkan untuk kepentingan pariwisata. Walaupun demikian, sumberdaya alam tersebut belum sepenuhnya digarap, dikembangkan dan dimanfaatkan menjadi obyek wisata alam.
Dibandingkan dengan pariwisata tradisional, pariwisata alam membutuhkan investasi yang relatif lebih besar untuk pembangunan sarana dan prasarananya. Untuk itu diperlukan evaluasi yang teliti terhadap kegiatan pariwisata alam tersebut. Banyak pendapat yang menyatakan bahwa pariwisata alam yang berbentuk ekowisata (ecotourism) belum berhasil berperan sebagai alat konservasi alam maupun untuk mengembangkan perekonomian. Satu diantara penyebabnya adalah masih sulitnya memperoleh dan menyediakan dana pengembangan kegiatannya. Kalaupun ada keuntungan yang diperoleh dari penyelenggaraan pariwisata jenis tersebut, namun masih relatif kecil jumlah yang dialokasikan untuk mendukung usaha konservasi dan pengembangan ekonomi (Suwantoro, 1997).
Untuk menciptakan iklim usaha dan peluang ekonomi secara profesional melalui kegiatam wisata alam, pemerintah telah mengeluarkan berbagai kebijakan. Departemen Kehutanan dan Perkebunan (dh. Departemen Kehutanan) telah mengantisipasi sejak tahun 1989, yaitu dengan diterbitkannya SK Menteri Kehutanan No. 68/Kpts-II/1989 tentang Pengusahaan Hutan Wisata, Taman nasional, Taman Hutan Raya dan Taman Wisata Laut. Ketentuan mengenai pengusahaan pariwisata alam kemudian diperkuat dengan peraturan perundangan yang lebih tinggi, yaitu Undang-Undang No.5 Tahun 1990 tentang Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam dan Ekosistemnya serta Peraturan Pemerintah No. 18 Tahun 1994 tentang Pengusahaan Pariwisata Alam di Zona Pemanfaatan Taman Nasional, Taman Hutan Raya dan Taman Wisata Alam. Demikian pula dalam pengembangan Wisata Buru, telah diterbitkan Peraturan Pemerintah No. 13 Tahun 1994 tentang Perburuan.
Kegiatan wisata alam yang dapat dilakukan dan dikembangkan di kawasan tersebut di atas pada prinsipnya dapat digolongkan dalam 2 (dua) tipe yaitu, wisata darat yang meliputi: lintas alam, mendaki gunung, menelusuri gua, berburu, fotografi, rekreasi pantai, berkemah, penelitian dan pendidikan; dan wisata bahari yang meliputi: berenang, menyelam dan snorkling, berlayar, berselancar, fotografi, memancing, rekreasi pantai, penelitian dan pendidikan.
Pengembangan pariwisata, termasuk di dalamnya wisata alam dapat memberikan manfaat dan keuntungan, yaitu : meningkatkan kesadaran masyarakat untuk berperan secara aktif dalam pelestarian lingkungan; pertukaran latar belakang budaya yang berbeda; membuka kesempatan kerja dan berusaha; meningkatakan pendapatan negara.
Kalimantan Timur merupakan salah satu provinsi yang kaya akan potensi alam dengan panorama yang indah dan keunikan serta kekhasannya. Apabila potensi ini mampu dikembangkan secara optimal maka Kalimantan Timur dapat menjadi satu diantara daerah tujuan wisata yang menarik banyak wisatawan. Dari beberapa kawasan konservasi yang ada di Kalimantan Timur, pengembangan lebih lanjut untuk dapat memberikan kontribusi pemasukan bagi daerah belumlah banyak dikembangkan. Saat ini, kawasan konservasi tersebut hanyalah dijadikan sebagai areal penelitian.
Beberapa kawasan yang telah dikembangkan untuk menjadi daerah tujuan wisata diantaranya adalah Taman Nasional Kutai, Taman Nasional Kayan Mentarang, Taman Anggrek Kresik Luwai, Gua Mangku Langit dan lain sebagainya yang kesemuanya mangandalkan keunikan dan keindahan alam Kalimantan Timur untuk menarik wisatawan.
Namun demikian daerah tujuan wisata tersebut belum mampu menarik wisatawan dalam jumlah besar dan menjadi kawasan konservasi yang ideal, hal ini disebabkan oleh banyak faktor. Beberapa faktor utama yang menjadi kendala adalah rendahnya aksesibilitas, manajemen yang kurang profesional dan keamanan kawasan dari tekanan penduduk disekitar kawasan dan faktor alam.
Taman Nasional Kayan Mentarang memiliki panorama alam yang menakjubkan terbentur pada aksesibilitas yang rendah. Taman Anggrek Kresik luwai memiliki berbagai macam koleksi angrek dan diantaranya termasuk anggrek yang langka dan khas kalimantan, akan tetapi tidak memiliki manajemen profesional. Taman Nasional Kutai kaya akan jenis flora dan fauna tetapi selalau terancam kelestariannya karena perambahan penduduk.
Namun untuk mengembangkan obyek-obyek wisata dengan masing-masing daya tarik/pesona, diperlukan skala prioritas yang didasarkan pada pertimbangan-pertimbangan: pernah dikunjungi wisatawan; relatif mudah dijangkau karena sudah ada hubungan udara, darat, laut dan sungai; memiliki faktor penunjang lainnya; pemerintah dan masyarakat setempat antusias mendukung pengembangan obyek wisata tersebut; keamanan dan ketertiban terjamin dengan baik.
Dengan begitu banyaknya potensi yang dimiliki Kalimantan Timur dan begitu besarnya peluang yang terbuka di dalam pengembangan ekowisata, maka perlu dilakukan penggalian yang lebih mendalam di dalam pengembangan ekowisata, khususnya di dalam pengembangan kawasan konservasi menjadi kawasan wisata di Kalimantan Timur.
Dari segi pendanaan, sebagai modal awal dalam pengembangan ekowisata, dengan telah mulai berlakunya otonomi daerah, maka tidak akan sukar bagi daerah Kalimantan Timur untuk memperoleh pendanaan tersebut. Yang diperlukan saat ini hanyalah mencoba menyatukan persepsi dan pandangan dari berbagai komponen di Kalimantan Timur dalam mengembangkan kawasan konservasi sebagai ekowisata demi kelestarian kawasan itu sendiri dan memberikan kesejahteraan bagi masyarakat sekitar kawasan.
Kamar pandiran: urai
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Kamis, 28 Agustus 2008
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Google launching
Awal hari ini, Google launching sebuah affiliasi iklan jaringan (affiliate ad network). Google juga melanjutkan percobaan dengan suatu program iklan pay-per-action (masih versi Beta). http://www.gsn-soeki.com/wouw/
Google Launches Affiliate Advertising Network, Courtesy of DoubleClick
by: Erick Schonfeld (June 30, 2008; 2:09 PM
Earlier today, Google launched an affiliate ad network. Or, rather, it rebranded Performics, the affiliate ad network that came along with its purchase of DoubleClick, as the "Google Affiliate Network." As with other affiliate networks such as Amazon's, participating Website publishers get paid a fee for each referral that results in a sale. Existing advertisers include Bank of America, Barnes & Noble, Citi, Target, and Verizon.
The service isn't yet integrated into Google AdSense (publishers and advertisers still have to set up separate accounts), but that would be a logical next step. An integration with AdSense could add a contextual element to the affiliate ads placed through the network. The more relevant Google can make those affiliate links, the more that consumers will actually click through and buy (in theory).
Google also continues to experiment with a pay-per-action advertising program, which is still in beta. At some point, it might make sense to consolidate that effort into the Google Affiliate Network as well.
Posted: 01 July 2008 11:12 66 Reads - Print
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Google Launches Affiliate Advertising Network, Courtesy of DoubleClick
by: Erick Schonfeld (June 30, 2008; 2:09 PM
Earlier today, Google launched an affiliate ad network. Or, rather, it rebranded Performics, the affiliate ad network that came along with its purchase of DoubleClick, as the "Google Affiliate Network." As with other affiliate networks such as Amazon's, participating Website publishers get paid a fee for each referral that results in a sale. Existing advertisers include Bank of America, Barnes & Noble, Citi, Target, and Verizon.
The service isn't yet integrated into Google AdSense (publishers and advertisers still have to set up separate accounts), but that would be a logical next step. An integration with AdSense could add a contextual element to the affiliate ads placed through the network. The more relevant Google can make those affiliate links, the more that consumers will actually click through and buy (in theory).
Google also continues to experiment with a pay-per-action advertising program, which is still in beta. At some point, it might make sense to consolidate that effort into the Google Affiliate Network as well.
Posted: 01 July 2008 11:12 66 Reads - Print
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Energy Medicine Healing
Energy Medicine Healing
The Definition of Energy Medicine, Energy Healing & Vibrational Medicine:
By Sharon Flaminio
Energy Medicine, Energy Healing and Vibrational Medicine work focuses on supporting an individual with his or her own healing process. In addition, Vibrational Medicine refers to a viewpoint of health and illness that takes into account all of the many forms and frequencies of vibrating energy that are a natural and normal part of the human energy system. All living things are composed of vibrating matter. Simply because they are not static the biochemical molecules that make up the physical body are a form of vibrating energy.
It has been demonstrated that various illnesses vibrate at different frequencies. The cells in our bodies create their own bioelectric fields which can be measured by different tests such as EKG's, EEG's, EMG's, etc. For example, an EKG (which is a test that measures electrical energy coming from the heart) can detect an abnormality in a person's bioelectric field.
In Newtonian physics the human body is viewed as a machine. Unfortunately, much of how Western Medicine looks at treating disease and dysfunction within the human body still follows the Newtonian principles. However, when we look at the human body through the principles of Quantum Physics, we can see the human body as having an energy signature that can become disrupted. It is evident that our cells communicate with each other and respond to their environment. An example of this is when cancer cells are described as "smart." Cancer cells move or scatter in what seems to be a survival method when a person is given radiation or chemotherapy. Sometimes a rise in one's cancer markers are seen during these types of treatments, indicating increased cancer cell activity. In exploring this phenomenon, Quantum Physics addresses questions such as why disease occurs in the body, and why do certain people become sick and others don't when they are exposed to the same conditions.
Applying physics to the world of medicine, Energy Medicine asserts that living beings' reactions to life are not only recorded in the biochemical patterns of memory within the brain, but are also evident in the seven life-energy centers known as Chakras. Because each major chakra is centrally located within various segments of the body, they are each directly linked to a particular region of the body and to a particular hormone-producing endocrine gland, organ system and major ganglion along the spinal cord. Chakras are beneficial to our bodily functions, as they help to nourish our cells and organs. (Our chakra awareness guide illustrates this nicely.)
The energetic balance of an individual's cells can be disrupted by illness, emotional or physical trauma, and by drug therapy or usage. Energy Medicine holds the belief that when disrupted, the chakra system becomes unbalanced, making it difficult for the body to heal itself. The areas where the energy flow is constricted are where the pre-disposition to illness in the body will develop. An example of this would be a person who has difficulty with the ability to love and to let in love. If left untreated, the individual may develop blockages in the fourth chakra: the area around the heart.
Energy balancing work is used to correct imbalances, to restore the natural flow of energy, and to support the body's natural ability to heal. The W.I.S.E.* Energy Medicine healing method, which we use at Awakenings Natural Healing, uses emotional processing, hands-on healing and physical movement to induce healing and to help move stored or blocked energy. Increasing people's awareness about healthy breathing helps to move waste products from the body, increases the body's oxygenation and helps the individual to relax and decrease stress. This in turn places the individual in a less acid state and the body becomes more balanced, allowing the body to focus healing on the areas that require repair.
Using the W.I.S.E. method of Energy Healing helps the patient to achieve a state of deep relaxation, which can lead to deep healing on both the emotional and physical levels.
Traditional western medicine is only just beginning to recognize the power of the body's God-given potential to heal. Energy work and other healing modalities that support one's ability to tap into the body's healing potential can be very powerful. Similarly, psychoneuroimmunology is a field of research that studies the link between mind, body and the immune system, and supports the importance of energy balancing work. (For more details check out Emmett Miller's book entitled Deep Healing.)
It is exciting to be part of this paradigm shift in patient care and I look forward to seeing it grow.
Article written by Sharon Flaminio with assistance from Dorothy Martin-Neville and Richard Gerber's Book on Vibrational Medicine. This work is copyrighted and can not be reproduced without the author's permission.
*The W.I.S.E. (Wholistic, Integrated, Spiritual, Energy) Method was created by Dorothy Martin-Neville, LMFT, LPC, PhD, the founder of the Institute of Healing Arts and Sciences (IHAS) in Hartford, CT. If you are interested in learning more about the IHAS healing programs please click the link below:
http://instituteofhealing.com/
The Definition of Energy Medicine, Energy Healing & Vibrational Medicine:
By Sharon Flaminio
Energy Medicine, Energy Healing and Vibrational Medicine work focuses on supporting an individual with his or her own healing process. In addition, Vibrational Medicine refers to a viewpoint of health and illness that takes into account all of the many forms and frequencies of vibrating energy that are a natural and normal part of the human energy system. All living things are composed of vibrating matter. Simply because they are not static the biochemical molecules that make up the physical body are a form of vibrating energy.
It has been demonstrated that various illnesses vibrate at different frequencies. The cells in our bodies create their own bioelectric fields which can be measured by different tests such as EKG's, EEG's, EMG's, etc. For example, an EKG (which is a test that measures electrical energy coming from the heart) can detect an abnormality in a person's bioelectric field.
In Newtonian physics the human body is viewed as a machine. Unfortunately, much of how Western Medicine looks at treating disease and dysfunction within the human body still follows the Newtonian principles. However, when we look at the human body through the principles of Quantum Physics, we can see the human body as having an energy signature that can become disrupted. It is evident that our cells communicate with each other and respond to their environment. An example of this is when cancer cells are described as "smart." Cancer cells move or scatter in what seems to be a survival method when a person is given radiation or chemotherapy. Sometimes a rise in one's cancer markers are seen during these types of treatments, indicating increased cancer cell activity. In exploring this phenomenon, Quantum Physics addresses questions such as why disease occurs in the body, and why do certain people become sick and others don't when they are exposed to the same conditions.
Applying physics to the world of medicine, Energy Medicine asserts that living beings' reactions to life are not only recorded in the biochemical patterns of memory within the brain, but are also evident in the seven life-energy centers known as Chakras. Because each major chakra is centrally located within various segments of the body, they are each directly linked to a particular region of the body and to a particular hormone-producing endocrine gland, organ system and major ganglion along the spinal cord. Chakras are beneficial to our bodily functions, as they help to nourish our cells and organs. (Our chakra awareness guide illustrates this nicely.)
The energetic balance of an individual's cells can be disrupted by illness, emotional or physical trauma, and by drug therapy or usage. Energy Medicine holds the belief that when disrupted, the chakra system becomes unbalanced, making it difficult for the body to heal itself. The areas where the energy flow is constricted are where the pre-disposition to illness in the body will develop. An example of this would be a person who has difficulty with the ability to love and to let in love. If left untreated, the individual may develop blockages in the fourth chakra: the area around the heart.
Energy balancing work is used to correct imbalances, to restore the natural flow of energy, and to support the body's natural ability to heal. The W.I.S.E.* Energy Medicine healing method, which we use at Awakenings Natural Healing, uses emotional processing, hands-on healing and physical movement to induce healing and to help move stored or blocked energy. Increasing people's awareness about healthy breathing helps to move waste products from the body, increases the body's oxygenation and helps the individual to relax and decrease stress. This in turn places the individual in a less acid state and the body becomes more balanced, allowing the body to focus healing on the areas that require repair.
Using the W.I.S.E. method of Energy Healing helps the patient to achieve a state of deep relaxation, which can lead to deep healing on both the emotional and physical levels.
Traditional western medicine is only just beginning to recognize the power of the body's God-given potential to heal. Energy work and other healing modalities that support one's ability to tap into the body's healing potential can be very powerful. Similarly, psychoneuroimmunology is a field of research that studies the link between mind, body and the immune system, and supports the importance of energy balancing work. (For more details check out Emmett Miller's book entitled Deep Healing.)
It is exciting to be part of this paradigm shift in patient care and I look forward to seeing it grow.
Article written by Sharon Flaminio with assistance from Dorothy Martin-Neville and Richard Gerber's Book on Vibrational Medicine. This work is copyrighted and can not be reproduced without the author's permission.
*The W.I.S.E. (Wholistic, Integrated, Spiritual, Energy) Method was created by Dorothy Martin-Neville, LMFT, LPC, PhD, the founder of the Institute of Healing Arts and Sciences (IHAS) in Hartford, CT. If you are interested in learning more about the IHAS healing programs please click the link below:
http://instituteofhealing.com/
Prices
Prices - Island Retreat
Accomodation:
Oceanfront Cottages: 25 $ US per person/day*
Garden Cottages : 15 $US per person/day*
Honey moon cottage: 28 $US per person/day, available for honeymooners and families (max. 4 Pers. only * full board, except beverages
back
Payment regulations & bank account:
Diving:
one dive 25 US$ per person
Pulau Batudaka - Island Tour:
3 days, 2 nights, several stops at villages, fishermen villages, sea gipsy houses,
food, drinks, simple accomodation,
1 night at beach bungalow, community room,
1 night at the village, tour to waterfall. Available on request only, minimum parti-cipation 4 persons
US$ 85 per person
Una Una Vulcano Tour:
Boat tour to the Una Una vulcano, stay overnight on board, guided tour, with full board. Available on request only, minimum participation 3 persons.
300.000 Rp. per person
Snorkelling:
equipment: mask, snorkel, fins (rental)
25.000 Rp. per person/day
1 day trip to Una Una - active volcano- atolls- best for snorkelling and diving, Picnic included
400.000 Rp. per person
minimum 4 persons present
1 day trip with lunch at white sand beach and snorkelling at 2 snorkelling sites
100.000 Rp. per person
minimum 4 persons present
Short snorkell trip to Taupan:
3 hours.,
40.000 Rp. per person
minimum 2 persons present
Island Tour 1
Makasar - Toraja - Island Retreat
15 days trip, available on request only, about 750 US$ per person for standard tour package, advanced payments are required!
pdf-download: price list 2004
Fishing:
outrigger by your own (free)
Join local fishermen fishing at night (40.000 Rp.).
Accomodation:
Oceanfront Cottages: 25 $ US per person/day*
Garden Cottages : 15 $US per person/day*
Honey moon cottage: 28 $US per person/day, available for honeymooners and families (max. 4 Pers. only * full board, except beverages
back
Payment regulations & bank account:
Diving:
one dive 25 US$ per person
Pulau Batudaka - Island Tour:
3 days, 2 nights, several stops at villages, fishermen villages, sea gipsy houses,
food, drinks, simple accomodation,
1 night at beach bungalow, community room,
1 night at the village, tour to waterfall. Available on request only, minimum parti-cipation 4 persons
US$ 85 per person
Una Una Vulcano Tour:
Boat tour to the Una Una vulcano, stay overnight on board, guided tour, with full board. Available on request only, minimum participation 3 persons.
300.000 Rp. per person
Snorkelling:
equipment: mask, snorkel, fins (rental)
25.000 Rp. per person/day
1 day trip to Una Una - active volcano- atolls- best for snorkelling and diving, Picnic included
400.000 Rp. per person
minimum 4 persons present
1 day trip with lunch at white sand beach and snorkelling at 2 snorkelling sites
100.000 Rp. per person
minimum 4 persons present
Short snorkell trip to Taupan:
3 hours.,
40.000 Rp. per person
minimum 2 persons present
Island Tour 1
Makasar - Toraja - Island Retreat
15 days trip, available on request only, about 750 US$ per person for standard tour package, advanced payments are required!
pdf-download: price list 2004
Fishing:
outrigger by your own (free)
Join local fishermen fishing at night (40.000 Rp.).
Rabu, 13 Agustus 2008
An Introduction to Modern Economic Botany
An Introduction to Modern Economic Botany
The existence of the human race has depended on plants to meet three necessities, mainly food, cloth and dwelling. In recent times, there exist a lot of vegetables which are not utilized for non-interest or poor knowledge about their possible uses. The main objective of this book on ‘An Introduction to Modern Economic Botany’ is to provide knowledge on the utility of plant species, cultivated or in the wild stage, which are closely related with different aspects such as Taxonomy, Phylogeny, Plant Morphology and Anatomy, Plant Morphology and Anatomy, Plant Physiology, Evolution, Ecology, Food Science, Toxicology, Biotic resources, Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, Agronomy and Horticulture. Basically this book is based on the knowledge of principal food, industrial and textile products, food products, as well as a vista of the geographic distribution and the morphology of some vegetable species, Apart from Plants of economic importance, the book also pretends to include some useful plants found in mexico, which are considered most important globally on the basis of their derived products. An extensive review of literature has been made on the utilization of these resources, including the results of thesis submitted in the Biology and Agronomy Faculties of the ‘La Universodad Autonoma de Nuevo, Leon’ and the ‘Department of chemistry and Biology, Universidad de las Americas, Puebla’. Mexico. Different themes have been described clearly and easily understandable form the readers. The second part of this book discusses the results of investigation and techniques of the investigation and techniques of the investigation on plants of economic importance. Apart from these aspects, the book mentioned the different forms of the utilization of resources and the necessities of investigation required to achieve the preservation and a better utilization of the same. This book can serve as a text of economic importance for the students at graduation level in the areas of Biology and Food Science. This book can also be used as a reference book by the students of Agricultural Botany or Agriculture.
The existence of the human race has depended on plants to meet three necessities, mainly food, cloth and dwelling. In recent times, there exist a lot of vegetables which are not utilized for non-interest or poor knowledge about their possible uses. The main objective of this book on ‘An Introduction to Modern Economic Botany’ is to provide knowledge on the utility of plant species, cultivated or in the wild stage, which are closely related with different aspects such as Taxonomy, Phylogeny, Plant Morphology and Anatomy, Plant Morphology and Anatomy, Plant Physiology, Evolution, Ecology, Food Science, Toxicology, Biotic resources, Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, Agronomy and Horticulture. Basically this book is based on the knowledge of principal food, industrial and textile products, food products, as well as a vista of the geographic distribution and the morphology of some vegetable species, Apart from Plants of economic importance, the book also pretends to include some useful plants found in mexico, which are considered most important globally on the basis of their derived products. An extensive review of literature has been made on the utilization of these resources, including the results of thesis submitted in the Biology and Agronomy Faculties of the ‘La Universodad Autonoma de Nuevo, Leon’ and the ‘Department of chemistry and Biology, Universidad de las Americas, Puebla’. Mexico. Different themes have been described clearly and easily understandable form the readers. The second part of this book discusses the results of investigation and techniques of the investigation and techniques of the investigation on plants of economic importance. Apart from these aspects, the book mentioned the different forms of the utilization of resources and the necessities of investigation required to achieve the preservation and a better utilization of the same. This book can serve as a text of economic importance for the students at graduation level in the areas of Biology and Food Science. This book can also be used as a reference book by the students of Agricultural Botany or Agriculture.
the botany
The science or study of plants.
A book or scholarly work on this subject.
The plant life of a particular area: the botany of the Ohio River valley.
3. The characteristic features and biology of a particular kind of plant or plant group.
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That branch of biological science which embraces the study of plants and plant life. Botanical studies may range from microscopic observations of the smallest and obscurest plants to the study of the trees of the forest. One botanist may be interested mainly in the relationships among plants and in their geographic distribution, whereas another may be primarily concerned with structure or with the study of the life processes taking place in plants.
Botany may be divided by subject matter into several specialties, such as plant anatomy, plant chemistry, plant cytology, plant ecology (including autecology and synecology), plant embryology, plant genetics, plant morphology, plant physiology, plant taxonomy, ethnobotany, and paleobotany. It may also be divided according to the group of plants being studied; for example, agostology, the study of grasses; algology (phycology), the study of algae; bryology, the study of mosses; mycology, the study of fungi; and pteridology, the study of ferns. Bacteriology and virology are also parts of botany in a broad sense. Furthermore, a number of agricultural subjects have botany as their foundation. Among these are agronomy, floriculture, forestry, horticulture, landscape architecture, and plant breeding. See also Agriculture; Agronomy; Bacteriology; Cell biology; Ecology; Floriculture; Genetics; Landscape architecture; Paleobotany; Plant anatomy; Plant growth; Plant morphogenesis; Plant pathology; Plant physiology; Plant taxonomy.
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Antonyms: botany
n
Definition: plant study
Antonyms: zoology
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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: botany
Branch of biology that deals with plants, including the study of the structure, properties, and biochemical processes of all forms of plant life, as well as plant classification, plant diseases, and the interactions of plants with their physical environment. The science of botany traces back to the ancient Greco-Roman world but received its modern impetus in Europe in the 16th century, mainly through the work of physicians and herbalists, who began to observe plants seriously to identify those useful in medicine. Today the principal branches of botanical study are morphology, physiology, ecology, and systematics (the identification and ranking of all plants). Subdisciplines include bryology (the study of mosses and liverworts), pteridology (the study of ferns and their relatives), paleobotany (the study of fossil plants), and palynology (the study of modern and fossil pollen and spores). See also forestry, horticulture.
For more information on botany, visit Britannica.com.
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US History Encyclopedia: Botany
The history of botany in America has several themes: the identification and study of new species discovered in the New World; the transformation of the field away from classification based on morphology, or shape, and toward interest in physiology and, later, genetics; the concomitant specialization and professionalization of botany, a subject that was originally relatively open to amateur practitioners, including women; and the development of American botanical research to rival the initially dominant European centers in England, France, and Germany. The European Renaissance had seen a revival of interest in botany and in ancient botanical works that was aided by the invention of the printing press in 1453, which allowed for a uniformity of plant depictions that hand-drawn manuscripts could not ensure.
Discoveries in the New World
The exploration of the New World, beginning with Columbus's voyage of 1492, was marked by the discovery of new flora and fauna, enthusiastically documented and described by travelers. It was not uncommon for those who wrote about the Americas to describe the plants and animals they had seen in terms of familiar European species, and, indeed, sometimes to mistakenly identify American species as being the same as European species. However, since plants do not move—unlike animals that might offer colonial settlers and travelers only a glimpse before disappearing—many American plants were quickly identified to be distinct from similar species in the Old World. Although Native Americans had developed their own classifications of North American flora, and although Native Americans were often a source of knowledge for colonists learning about the uses of new plants, Europeans tended to impose their own classifications onto the plants of the New World.
At the time, the discovery of new species posed a theological problem for European Christians, as the description of Noah's Ark insisted that Noah had gathered every kind of plant, while the New World contained many plants not part of the European and Asian ecosystems. Questions quickly arose as to whether there had once been a land bridge between the Americas and Eurasia and, even prior to Darwin, whether American plant species were modified variations on European species.
Moreover, some plants from the Americas became quite profitable crops for Europeans, most notably tobacco and chocolate, and many Europeans came over to explore and study the new plants. The first notable publication on the flora of the Americas was by Nicolás Monardes, who never traveled to the New World but wrote on its plants in his 1574 Historia Medicinal, which was translated into English by John Frampton as Joyfull Newes out of the Newe Founde Worlde (1577). The work was primarily concerned with the medicinal benefits of the plants and herbs in the Americas, and, indeed, many of the practitioners of botany in the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and even into the nineteenth centuries were also trained in medicine and were interested in the possible new cures available in undocumented American plants.
However, amateurs also made important contributions to the study of American botanicals, examining the plants in local areas, presenting their findings at botanical societies, swapping samples with other botanists and sending plants back to Europe, and cultivating herbaria and arboreta. From colonial times until the mid-nineteenth century, the work of amateurs in finding, studying, and documenting new species was important to the study of botany as a whole. A primary example is Jane Colden (1724–1766), the daughter of the botanist Cadwallader Colden. Tutored only by her father, Jane Colden studied and drew the plants of New York, classifying hundreds of plants, including the gardenia, which she discovered.
Jane Colden was especially renowned for understanding and using the Linnaean classification scheme. Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish doctor and botanist, developed his hierarchy throughout his life, his most notable publications including the Systema Naturae (1735), GeneraPlantarum (1737), and Species Plantarum (1753). The Linnaean system, which has since been greatly revised, divided animals and plants into kingdoms, classes, orders, genera, and species, all written in Latin. Each species was given a two-part (binomial) name of genus and species.
Classification
Linnaeus's classification system greatly influenced eighteenth-century botany in America. Some of his students came over to categorize the species of the New World, most significantly Pehr Kalm, who traveled through the Great Lakes, the Mid-Atlantic colonies, and Canada, bringing back samples. Meanwhile, colonial settlers like John Bartram (1699–1777), Cadwallader Colden (1688–1776), Humphry Marshall (1722–1801), and others worked to incorporate the local flora into the work of Linnaeus, which provided a new sense of order for those working on studying the plants and animals of the overwhelmingly diverse and novel New World.
But although the Linnaean system was helpful, it could not survive the strain of the thousands of new discoveries in the Americas and Asia. Plant classifications based on reproduction resulted in categories that contained obviously widely diverging plants. In particular, Linnaeus was challenged by French botanists who emphasized grouping plants by shape (morphology). Antoine Laurent de Jussieu's (1748–1836) 1789 Genera Plantarum prompted the reorganizing of classification by appearance and added levels to the taxonomy.
The Jussieu modifications quickly, but not uncontroversially, became added to botanical literature, although the Linnaean system continued to be used in many prominent American publications through the early nineteenth century. Meanwhile, French botanists made other contributions to the study of North American plants. André Michaux (1746–1802) and his son, François André (1770–1855), traveled through much of eastern North America, from Canada to the Bahamas, observing and collecting. The end result of their massive researches was the 1803 Flora Boreali-Americana, the first large-scale compilation of North American plants. The work of the Michaux drew, not uncritically, on the reforms of Jussieu.
Nineteenth-Century American Botanists
The Michaux volumes encouraged revisions, the first coming in 1814 with the Flora Americae Septentrionalis of Frederick Pursh (1774–1820), which incorporated findings from the Lewis and Clark Expedition and thus contained information about western America. Pursh's contemporary, Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859), was born and died in England, but his interest, education, and work in botany were conducted primarily in America, where he explored the south and west, collecting and publishing his findings. Although he is known for his extensive discoveries, Nuttall also wrote the 1818 Genera of the North American Plants and 1827 Introduction to Systematic and Physiological Botany. His work is symbolic of a turn from European-dominated study of North American plants toward American specialists in native species. Although Americans had always played important roles in the discovery, cataloging, and study of local plants, the early and mid-nineteenth century saw the burgeoning of work by American botanists, both amateur and professional. Meanwhile, the American government sponsored expeditions to find and collect plant species in the less studied areas of the south and west of America.
Among the American botanists of the early nineteenth century, the most famous are Jacob Bigelow (1786–1879), Amos Eaton (1776–1842), John Torrey (1796–1873), and Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859). Bigelow, who was trained as a doctor, was primarily interested in the medicinal uses of plants, but he also surveyed the flora of Boston for his Florula Bostoniensis (1814). Additionally, he did work in physiology, which was already a topic of considerable interest in the first decades of the century and would come to dominate morphology in botanical concerns by the end of the nineteenth century.
Amos Eaton gained his reputation primarily through his Manual of Botany (first published in 1817, but revised and enlarged through many editions), which became the basic botanical teaching text of the first half of the nineteenth century. Eaton, who also worked in geology and chemistry, encouraged the participation of women in science, although indeed women were already quite well represented in botany, which he noted. In part this botanical activity by women was due to the fact that contemporary botany required little laboratory equipment: discoveries could be made by anyone who was diligent and well read in botany, and so graduate degrees or access to laboratories—both largely denied at the time to women—were unnecessary to botanical work. However, although Eaton emphasized field work, the most accessible kind of botanical study, he was also part of a trend toward including laboratory experiments.
Eaton's teaching and text were very influential, perhaps most importantly in botany upon John Torrey, whom Eaton met while serving a prison sentence for forgery—a charge he denied. Torrey was the son of a man who worked for the State Prison of New York, and Eaton gave the young Torrey lessons in a variety of scientific subjects, including botany. While Torrey went on to have a career that included work in medicine, geology, mineralogy, and chemistry, he is primarily remembered for his botanical work, cataloging New York flora, collaborating with Asa Gray, creating a renowned herbarium, promoting government-financed expeditions, utilizing—albeit inconsistently—the classification work of John Lindley, and serving as the first president of the Torrey Botanical Society, a group of prominent amateur and professional botanists in New York. The Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Society, which began publication in 1870, is the oldest American botanical journal.
Although Bigelow, Eaton, Torrey, Nuttall, and others did much to encourage and expand knowledge of native plants, it is Asa Gray (1810–1888) who takes center stage in the history of American botany in the nineteenth century. Gray published A Flora of North America (1838–1843) with Torrey, which drew on the Lindley classification system, which was a development from Jussieu's "natural system." Gray's textbooks replaced those of Eaton, and the botanical research center he set up at Harvard cultivated many of the next generation of botanists and encouraged work in anatomy, cellular structure, and physiology, realms that were dominated by German botanists. Interested in East Asian flora as well as that of North America, Gray quickly supported Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory as expounded in the 1859 Origin of Species because he had noticed regional variation himself. This drew him into conflict with another Harvard professor, the zoologist Louis Agassiz, who was a prominent anti-Darwinian. However, evolution soon became a guiding principle in botanical study.
Theoretical Research
The twentieth century saw the rise of American research devoted to the theoretical aspects of botany, areas in which America had typically lagged behind Europe, as American botanists became more involved in experiments, physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics, and less involved in the discovery of new species. While Darwin could not provide an explanation for the origins of variation and the inheritance of characteristics, Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), a Moravian monk, offered hereditary principles based on experiments with pea plants in his Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden (Experiments in plant hybridization; 1865, 1869). Although Mendel's research went unacknowledged until 1900, when rediscovered it was profoundly influential in turning the research edge of botany, which was already moving from morphology to physiology, toward genetics as well. In addition, during the first half of the twentieth century, ecological research, which tied together the plants and animals of a habitat, began to thrive, as evidenced by the work of Henry Chandler Cowles (1869–1939) and others. Mathematics was put to use in the study of plant and animal populations, and in 1942 Raymond Lindeman (1915–1942) demonstrated the "trophic-dynamic aspect" of ecology to show how energy moves from individual to individual through a local environment.
Since the 1960s, plant physiology has looked more to understanding the relationship between plants and their surrounding environment: studying plant reactions to environmental change, both with a look to the evolutionary mechanisms involved and concerning the ongoing degradation of the global environment.
Moreover, the introduction of genetic research has prompted yet another change in taxonomy, with the rise of phylogenetics, in which variation is traced to the genetic level, allowing botanists to reorganize classification by evolutionary relatedness, replacing previous categories. Relatedly, work on population genetics, genetic engineering, and genomics (the study of all of the genes in a DNA sequence) has blossomed since the 1960s, a no-table recent achievement being the completion of the Arabadopsis thaliana genome—the first plant genome completely sequenced—in 2000. Although some of the work was completed by American researchers and partly funded by the American government, the project represents the prominent international collaborations that are shaping botany today, with aid also provided by the European Union and the Japanese government and research carried out in America, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Japan.
Bibliography
Evans, Howard Ensign. Pioneer Naturalists: The Discovery and Naming of North American Plants and Animals. New York: Henry Holt, 1993.
Greene, Edward Lee. Landmarks of Botanical History. Edited by Frank N. Egerton. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983.
Humphrey, Harry Baker. Makers of North American Botany. New York: Ronald Press, 1961.
Keeney, Elizabeth B. The Botanizers: Amateur Scientists in Nineteenth-Century America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
Mauseth, James D. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. 2d ed. Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1998.
Morton, A. G. History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
Reveal, James L. Gentle Conquest: The Botanical Discovery of North America with Illustrations from the Library of Congress. Washington, D.C.: Starwood, 1992.
Stuckey, Ronald L., ed. Development of Botany in Selected Regions of North America before 1900. New York: Arno Press, 1978.
—Caroline R. Sherman
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Columbia Encyclopedia: botany,
science devoted to the study of plants. Botany, microbiology, and zoology together compose the science of biology. Humanity's earliest concern with plants was with their practical uses, i.e., for fuel, clothing, shelter, and, particularly, food and drugs. The establishment of botany as an intellectual science came in classical times. In the 4th cent. B.C., Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus worked out descriptions and principles of plant types and functions that remained the prototype for botanical observation for 1,000 years. During the stagnant period of the Middle Ages the knowledge of the classical scholars was preserved in the European monasteries and by the Arabs in the Middle East. In the 16th and 17th cent. an interest in botany revived in Europe and spread to America by way of European conquest and colonization. At that time both botany and the art of gardening (see garden) stressed the utility of plants for man; the popular herbal, describing the medical uses of plants, mingled current superstition with fact. In the late 17th and the 18th cent. the influence of the ancient scholars was modified by the growth of scientific botany. Through careful and accurate observation the sciences of taxonomy and morphology (see biology) were developed, providing the basis for the first systematic classification of organisms, chiefly in the work of Linnaeus. With the microscope came the development of plant anatomy and research on the cell. New knowledge of the principles of chemistry and physics spurred experimentation in plant physiology, notably the early work of Stephen Hales on the sources and manufacture of plant food, which led to studies of such basic processes as photosynthesis. Modern botany has expanded into all areas of biology, including molecular biology, and has developed such specialties as ethnobotany, which studies the use of plants in preindustrial societies. Perhaps most significant was the work of Mendel in plant breeding at the middle (1859) of the 19th cent., from which grew the science of genetics. Allied with experimental botany are the various practical aspects that have developed into specific scientific disciplines (e.g., agriculture, agronomy, horticulture, and forestry).
Bibliography
See J. von Sachs, History of Botany (tr. 1890, repr. 1967); C. L. Wilson and W. E. Loomis, Botany (4th ed. 1967); C. B. Lees, Gardens, Plants and Man (1970); A. G. Morton, History of Botanical Science (1981).
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History 1450-1789: Botany
From antiquity into the late eighteenth century, the medical utility of plants provided the primary motive for studying them. However, from the late fifteenth century on, other reasons for the investigation of plants became increasingly important and gave botany a disciplinary and professional identity distinct from medicine. These included: explicating classical texts; portraying plants accurately in works of art; collecting rarities for natural history cabinets, gardens, and museums; exploiting natural resources; glorifying the wonders of creation; and satisfying the curiosity of natural philosophers. The primary thrust of botany in early modern Europe was plant identification, description, and classification, an effort that culminated in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when systematics assimilated morphology, reproduction, anatomy, and geography.
Late Fifteenth Century to Mid-Sixteenth Century
While editing the ancient authorities on medicinal plants—Pliny's Natural History and Dioscorides' De Materia medica (On the materials of medicine)—in the late fifteenth century, Italian humanists looked at living plants to resolve textual problems. In contrast to medieval doctors' dependence on illiterate herb-gatherers, medical humanists in the early sixteenth century strove to emulate Dioscorides' and Galen's firsthand experience with medicinal plants.
The lack of a shared vocabulary for plant description and nomenclature was circumvented by the addition of accurate, detailed, naturalistic woodcut illustrations to printed herbals—a key innovation introduced by Otto Brunfels's (1488–1534) Herbarum Vivae Eicones (Living images of plants, 1530) and Leonhard Fuchs's (1501–1534) Historia Stirpium (Notable commentaries on the history of plants, 1542), and imitated by virtually every herbal thereafter. The failure of Leonardo da Vinci's (1452–1519) superb drawings and observations of plant forms—unfinished at his death in 1519—to influence early modern botany underscores the scientific consequences of coupling the technology of printing to skill in depicting plants.
Beginning in the 1530s, medical schools at Padua, Pisa, Basel, and Montpellier established chairs of botany, required lectures, demonstrations, and field trips, and built botanical gardens. Students of Luca Ghini (1500–1556), professor of botany at Bologna and Pisa, spread his technique of preserving pressed, dried specimens throughout Europe.
Mid-Sixteenth Century to Early Seventeenth Century
The humanist physicians' desire to prescribe the precise plants named by classical authorities spurred Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1501–1578), a Habsburg court physician, to prepare a voluminous illustrated commentary on Dioscorides (first edition, 1544), the best-selling herbal of the period. Its revisions and enlargements helped Renaissance botanists realize that they knew far more plants than their ancient counterparts.
The immense "universal" herbals of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century—published or projected by major botanists from most European countries, including William Turner (c. 1508–1568), Conrad Gessner (1516–1565), Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605), Jacques Dalechamps (D'Aléchamps, Dalechampius, 1513–1588), Charles de L'Escluse (Clusius, 1526–1609), Matthias de L'Obel (Lobelius, 1538–1616), Rembert Dodoens (Dodonaeus, 1517–1585), Jean Bauhin (1541–1612), Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), and John Gerard (1564–1637)—represented efforts to describe both long-familiar plants and the flood of new species. Plants entered European gardens and herbaria through the voyages of discovery and conquest and by exploration of local habitats. Informal networks of professional and amateur enthusiasts surmounted religious and political divisions and fostered a rapid international exchange of specimens, books, pictures, and observations.
To organize their entries, most herbals used a pragmatic mixture of systems, grouping some plants by their uses, others by similarities of form or habitats. Some herbals, emblem books, and books on natural magic—reflecting astrology, Paracelsan chemistry, and the search for symbolic significance in nature—stressed plants' hidden, inner properties, manifested by distinctive external "signatures." Appealing to Aristotle and Theophrastus's philosophical emphasis on growth and reproduction as the essential characteristics of the vegetative soul, Andrea Cesalpino (Caesalpinus, 1524–1603) stressed resemblances of seeds and fruits in grouping plants in his influential De Plantis Libri XVI (On plants, 1583).
Early Seventeenth Century to Late Eighteenth Century
Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), professor of botany and anatomy at Basel, took the first critical step toward a single botanical lexicon of plant names: his Pinax Theatri Botanici (Pinax, i.e., Index, for the botanical realm, 1623) summarized the synonyms and literature for some six thousand plants—ten times the number in Dioscorides—and assigned them brief descriptive Latin names that emphasized their affinities. (Pinax remains an indispensable guide to identifying plants in earlier works.) An equally important step came from Joachim Jung's (1587–1657) astute analysis of plant parts, which reached John Ray (1627–1705)—English cleric, naturalist, natural philosopher, and fellow of the Royal Society—by 1660 in manuscript. Between 1660 and 1704, Ray linked taxonomy, nomenclature, morphology, and bibliography in a series of strictly botanical books that brought together first-hand accounts of many previously undescribed plants, new technical terminology (such as petal, calyx, cotyledon), close observations of growth and form, and deep reflection on method.
Ray spelled out the combinations of essential morphological features that defined natural classes of plants. While acknowledging natural groupings at least at the genus/species level (categories that went back to Aristotle), the French botanist, J. P. de Tournefort (1656–1708), countered with a convenient and widely adopted artificial system of classification based primarily on the disposition of flower parts.
The chemical composition of plants and the form and function of plant parts, previously regarded as unimportant, came under the scrutiny of botanists trained in iatrochemistry—notably Guy de la Brosse (1586–1641), the founder of the Paris Jardin des Plantes in 1640—and in microscopy. Robert Hooke (1635–1703) and Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) in England and Marcello Malphighi (1628–1694) in Italy reported to the Royal Society in the late seventeenth century on their experimental investigations of plant cells and tissue structures. Stephen Hales (1677–1761) in the 1720s and Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) and Jan Ingen-Housz (1730–1799) half a century later devised chemical and physical experiments to measure plant nutrition and metabolism.
The demonstration of sexual reproduction in flowering plants—in an obscure 1694 publication, De Sexu Plantarum Epistola (On the sex of plants), by Rudolf Jacob Camerer (Camerarius), professor of medicine at Tübingen—both resolved a longstanding question and provided the brilliant Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) with the basis of a taxonomic system that overrode all earlier proposals.
Believing that God had created species and genera, Linnaeus embedded their essential characters in his binomial nomenclature—henceforth giving the terms "genus" and "species" distinctive scientific meanings. Although Linnaeus clearly recognized larger natural groupings (plant families were methodically elucidated by the French botanists Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu [1748–1836] and Michel Adanson [1727–1806] in the late eighteenth century), his Species Plantarum (Species of plants, 1753) constructed a deliberately artificial system of classification, easily understood by anyone—even "ladies"—who could count the sexual parts of flowers. By imposing a common language and rational organization on the plant kingdom, Linnaeus made botany both a symbol of divine order and the epitome of Enlightenment science.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Bauhinus, Casparus. Pinax Theatri Botanici. Basel, 1623.
Brunfelsius, Otho. Herbarum Vivae Eicones. Strasbourg, 1530.
Camerarius, Rudolphus Jacobus. De Sexu Plantarum Epistola. Tübingen, 1694.
Caesalpinus, Andreas. De Plantis Libri XVI. Florence, 1583.
Linnaeus, Carl. Species Plantarum. London, 1957–1959. A facsimile of the first edition, 1753.
Meyer, Frederick G., Emily Emmart Trueblood, and John L. Heller. The Great Herbal of Leonhart Fuchs: Vol. 1, Commentary; Vol. 2, De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes, 1542: Facsimile. Stanford, 1999.
Secondary Sources
Arber, Agnes. Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution: A Chapter in the History of Botany, 1470–1670. 3rd ed. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1986. Facsimile reprint of second edition (1938), with an introduction and annotations by William T. Stearn.
Findlen, Paula. Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Berkeley, 1994.
Koerner, Lisbet. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge, Mass., 1999.
Morton, A. G. History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day. London and New York, 1981.
Reeds, Karen Meier. Botany in Medieval and Renaissance Universities. New York, 1991.
—KAREN REEDS
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Science Dictionary: botany
The scientific study and categorization of plants. (See fruit, photosynthesis, and plant kingdom.)
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Devil's Dictionary: botany
A cynical view of the world by Ambrose Bierce
n.
The science of vegetables -- those that are not good to eat, as well as those that are. It deals largely with their flowers, which are commonly badly designed, inartistic in color, and ill- smelling.
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Gardener's Dictionary: botany
The science or study of plants.
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Wikipedia: Botany
For other meanings, see Botany (disambiguation)
Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort
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Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort
Example of a cross section of a stem [1]
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Example of a cross section of a stem [1]
Botany is the scientific study of plant life. As a branch of biology, it is also called plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between the different groups. The study of plants and botany began with tribal lore, used to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms.
Scope and importance of botany
Hibiscus
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Hibiscus
As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life.
Historically, botany covers all organisms that were not considered to be animals. Some of these "plant-like" organisms include fungi (studied in mycology), bacteria and viruses (studied in microbiology), and algae (studied in phycology). Most algae, fungi, and microbes are no longer considered to be in the plant kingdom. However, attention is still given to them by botanists, and bacteria, fungi, and algae are usually covered in introductory botany courses.
The study of plants has importance for a number of reasons. Plants are a fundamental part of life on Earth. They generate the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Plants also absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, a minor greenhouse gas that in large amounts can effect global climate. It is believed that the evolution of plants has changed the global atmosphere of the earth early in the earth's history and paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:
* Produce food to feed an expanding population
* Understand fundamental life processes
* Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments
* Understand environmental changes more clearly
Human nutrition
Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.
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Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.
Virtually all foods eaten come from plants, either directly from staple foods and other fruit and vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. Plants are the fundamental base of nearly all food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere and convert them into a form that can be consumed and utilized by animals, this is what ecologists call the first trophic level. Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations, for example through plant breeding. Botanists also study weeds, plants which are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location. Weeds are a considerable problem in agriculture, and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and native ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people.
Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of modern genetics from his studies of plants.
Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of modern genetics from his studies of plants.
Fundamental life processes
Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like cell division and protein synthesis for example) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, who was studying the way pea shape is inherited. What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, Barbara McClintock discovered 'jumping genes' by studying maize. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.
Medicine and materials
Many medicinal and recreational drugs, like cannabis, caffeine, and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products; for example aspirin is based on the pain killer salicylic acid which originally came from the bark of willow trees.[2] There may be many novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and tea also come from plants. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as barley malt and grapes.
Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and rubber. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant. Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and other plants with a highly-fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels, see biodiesel.
Environmental changes
Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways.
* Understanding habitat destruction and species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of plant systematics and taxonomy.
* Plant responses to ultraviolet radiation can help us monitor problems like the ozone depletion.
* Analyzing pollen deposited by plants thousands or millions of years ago can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of climate change research.
* Recording and analyzing the timing of plant life cycles are important parts of phenology used in climate-change research.
* Lichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as pollution indicators.
In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners canary', an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of plants every day.
Etymology
From Greek βοτάνη = "pasture, grass, fodder", perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat.
History
The traditional tools of a botanist.
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The traditional tools of a botanist.
Early examples of plant taxonomy occur in the Rigveda, that divides plants into Vrska (tree), Osadhi (herbs useful to humans) and Virudha (creepers). which are further subdivided. The Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes, Visakha (spreading branches), Manjari (leaves with long clusters), Sthambini (bushy plants), Prastanavati (which expands); Ekasrnga (those with monopodial growth), Pratanavati (creeping plants), Amsumati (with many stalks), and Kandini (plants with knotty joints). The Taittiriya Samhita and classifies the plant kingdom into vrksa, vana and druma (trees), visakha (shrubs with spreading branches), sasa (herbs), amsumali (a spreading or deliquescent plant), vratati (climber), stambini (bushy plant), pratanavati (creeper), and alasala (those spreading on the ground).
Manusmriti proposed a classification of plants in eight major categories. Charaka Samhitā and Sushruta Samhita and the Vaisesikas also present an elaborate taxonomy.
Parashara, the author of Vrksayurveda (the science of life of trees), classifies plants into Dvimatrka (Dicotyledons) and Ekamatrka (Monocotyledons). These are further classified into Samiganiya (Fabaceae), Puplikagalniya (Rutaceae), Svastikaganiya (Cruciferae), Tripuspaganiya (Cucurbitaceae), Mallikaganiya (Apocynaceae), and Kurcapuspaganiya (Asteraceae). [2]
Among the earliest of botanical works, written around 300 B.C., are two large treatises by Theophrastus: On the History of Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer Dioscorides provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants.
In ancient China, the recorded listing of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes spans back to at least the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. There was the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) written work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Ji of the 2nd century. There was also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo, who compiled treatises on herbal medicine and included the use of mineralogy.
Important medieval works of plant physiology include the Prthviniraparyam of Udayana, Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara, Saddarsana-samuccaya of Gunaratna, and Upaskara of Sankaramisra. [3]
In 1665, using an early microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue. The German Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors Nicholas Culpeper and John Gerard published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants.
In 1754 Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus) devided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. One, the Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).[3]
Modern botany
A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying model plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its genome sequenced. The sequencing of the rice (Oryza sativa) genome and a large international research community have made rice the de facto cereal/grass/monocot model. Another grass species, Brachypodium distachyon is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially-important staple foods like wheat, maize, barley, rye, pearl millet and soybean are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two haploid (n) sets of chromosomes, a condition known as polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a single-celled, green alga) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology.
In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, major questions such as which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of angiosperms are now understood. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.
Subdisciplines of Botany
* Agronomy—Application of plant science to crop production
* Bryology—Mosses, liverworts, and hornwarts
* Economic botany—The place of plants in economics
* Ethnobotany—Relationship between humans and plants
* Forestry—Forest management and related studies
* Horticulture—Cultivated plants
* Paleobotany—Fossil plants
* Palynology—Pollen and spores
* Phycology - Algae
* Phytochemistry—Plant secondary chemistry and chemical processes
* Phytopathology—Plant diseases
* Plant anatomy—Cell and tissue structure
* Plant ecology—Role of plants in the environment
* Plant genetics—Genetic inheritance in plants
* Plant morphology—Structure and life cycles
* Plant physiology—Life functions of plants
* Plant systematics—Classification and naming of plants
See also
Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769
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Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769
* History of plant systematics
* History of phycology
* Botanical garden and List of botanical gardens
* Dendrochronology
* List of domesticated plants
* Edible Flowers
* Flowers and List of flowers
* Forestry
* Herbs
* List of botanical journals
* List of botanists
* List of botanists by author abbreviation
* List of systems of plant taxonomy
* List of publications in biology
* Paleobotany
* Palynology
* Plant anatomy
* Seeds
* Plant physiology
* Plant community
* Plant sexuality
* Soil science
Part of a series on
Horticulture and Gardening
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Gardening
Gardening • Garden • Botanical garden • Arboretum • Botany • Plant
Horticulture
Horticulture • Agriculture • Urban agriculture • City farm • Organic farming • Herb farm • Hobby farm • Intercropping • Farm
Customs
Harvest festival • Thanksgiving • History of agriculture
Plant protection
Phytopathology • Pesticide • Weed control
* Trees
* Vegetation
* Weed Science
References
1. ^ Winterborne J, 2005. Hydroponics - Indoor Horticulture [1]
2. ^ Mann, J. (1987). Secondary Metabolism, 2nd ed.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 186-187. ISBN 0-19-855529-6.
3. ^ Hoek, C.van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. 2005. Algae An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0 521 30419 9
* U.S. Geological Survey. National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany
Further reading
Popular science style books on Botany
* Attenborough, David The Private Life of Plants, ISBN 0-563-37023-8
* Bellamy, D Bellamy on Botany, ISBN 0-563-10666-2 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects
* Capon, B: Botany for Gardeners ISBN 0-88192-655-8
* Cohen, J. How many people can the earth support? W.W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0-393-31495-2
* Halle, Francis. In praise of plants ISBN 0-88192-550-0. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants.
* King, J. Reaching for the sun: How plants work ISBN 0-521-58738-7. A fluent introduction to how plants work.
* Pakenham, T: Remarkable Trees of the World (2002) ISBN 0-297-84300-1
* Pakenham, T: Meetings with Remarkable Trees (1996) ISBN 0-297-83255-7
* Pollan, M The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6300-4 Account of the co-evolution of plants and humans
* Thomas, B.A.: The evolution of plants and flowers St Martin's Press 1981 ISBN 0-312-27271-5
* Walker, D. Energy, Plants and Man ISBN 1-870232-05-4 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis
Academic and Scientific books on Botany
* Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W & Jones, R.L. (2000) Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9
* Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). Studies in plant survival. Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01475-X
* Crawley, M. J. (1997). Plant ecology. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0-632-03639-7
* Ennos, R and Sheffield, E Plant life, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant biodiversity
* Fitter, A & Hay, R Environmental physiology of plants 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3
* Lambers, H., Chapin, F.S. III and Pons, T.L. 1998. Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-98326-0
* Lawlor, D.W. (2000) Photosynthesis BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6
* Matthews, R. E. F. Fundamentals of plant virology Academic Press,1992.
* Mauseth, J.D.: Botany : an introduction to plant biology. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook
* Morton, A.G. (1981). History of Botanical Science.Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-12-508382-3 (paperback)
* Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: Biology of Plants, Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6, A first year undergraduate level textbook
* Richards, P. W. (1996). The tropical rainforest. 2nd ed. C.U.P. (Pbk) ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32.50
* Ridge, I. (2002) Plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925548-2
* Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: Plant physiology Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0-534-15162-0
* Stace, C. A. A new flora of the British Isles. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0-521-58935-5
* Strange, R. L. Introduction to plant pathology. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84973-8
* Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (1998). Plant physiology. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0
* Walter, H. (1985). Vegetation of the earth. 3rd rev. ed. Springer.
* Willis, K (2002) The evolution of plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99
External links
Wikiversity
At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Botany at:
The Department of Botany
Wikibooks
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Botany
* Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation
* plant growth and the plant cell from Kimball's Biology Pages
* Botanical Society of America: What is Botany?
* Science and Plants for Schools
* Teaching Documents about Botany Teaching documents, lecture notes and tutorials online: an annotated link directory.
* American society of plant biologists APSB
* Why study Plants? Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge
* Botany Photo of the Day
Flora and other plant catalogs or databases
* The Virtual Library of Botany
* High quality pictures of plants and information about them from Catholic University of Leuven
* Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 1790-1856
* The Trees Of Great Britain and Ireland, by Henry John Elwes & Augustine Henry, 1906-1913
* Botanik-Datenbank (ger.)
* Plant Directory (ger.)
* USDA plant database
* The Linnean Society of London
* Native Plant Information Network
Botany
Subdisciplines of botany Ethnobotany · Paleobotany · Plant anatomy · Plant ecology · Plant morphology · Plant physiology
Plants Evolutionary history of plants · Algae · Bryophyte · Pteridophyte · Gymnosperm · Angiosperm
Plant parts Flower · Fruit · Leaf · Meristem · Root · Stem · Stoma · Vascular tissue · Wood
Plant cells Cell wall · Chlorophyll · Chloroplast · Photosynthesis · Plant hormone · Plastid · Transpiration
Plant life cycles Gametophyte · Plant sexuality · Pollen · Pollination · Seed · Spore · Sporophyte
Plant taxonomy Botanical name · Botanical nomenclature · Herbarium · IAPT · ICBN · Species Plantarum
Category · Project · Portal
Major subtopics of biology
Anatomy - Astrobiology - Biochemistry - Bioinformatics - Botany - Cell biology - Ecology - Developmental biology - Evolutionary biology - Genetics - Genomics - Marine biology - Human biology - Microbiology - Molecular biology - Origin of life - Paleontology - Parasitology - Pathology - Physiology - Taxonomy - Zoology
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Translations: Translations for: Botany
Dansk (Danish)
n. - botanik
n. - kamgarn, merinould
Nederlands (Dutch)
botanie, plantkunde
Français (French)
n. - botanique
n. - laine mérinos (d'Australie)
Deutsch (German)
n. - Botanik, Pflanzenkunde
n. - Merino Wolle (vor allem Australien)
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - βοτανική, φυτολογία
Italiano (Italian)
botanica
Português (Portuguese)
n. - botânica (f)
Русский (Russian)
ботаника
Español (Spanish)
n. - botánica
n. - lana merina de Australia
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - botanik
中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
植物学
植物学
中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 植物學
n. - 植物學
한국어 (Korean)
n. - 식물학, 전체 식물
n. - 오스트레일리아 산의 최고급 메리노 양모
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 植物学, 一地域の植物, 一地域の植物の生態
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) علم النبات
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - תורת הצומח, בוטניקה
n. - צמר של כבשי מרינו, בייחוד מאוסטרליה
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A book or scholarly work on this subject.
The plant life of a particular area: the botany of the Ohio River valley.
3. The characteristic features and biology of a particular kind of plant or plant group.
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That branch of biological science which embraces the study of plants and plant life. Botanical studies may range from microscopic observations of the smallest and obscurest plants to the study of the trees of the forest. One botanist may be interested mainly in the relationships among plants and in their geographic distribution, whereas another may be primarily concerned with structure or with the study of the life processes taking place in plants.
Botany may be divided by subject matter into several specialties, such as plant anatomy, plant chemistry, plant cytology, plant ecology (including autecology and synecology), plant embryology, plant genetics, plant morphology, plant physiology, plant taxonomy, ethnobotany, and paleobotany. It may also be divided according to the group of plants being studied; for example, agostology, the study of grasses; algology (phycology), the study of algae; bryology, the study of mosses; mycology, the study of fungi; and pteridology, the study of ferns. Bacteriology and virology are also parts of botany in a broad sense. Furthermore, a number of agricultural subjects have botany as their foundation. Among these are agronomy, floriculture, forestry, horticulture, landscape architecture, and plant breeding. See also Agriculture; Agronomy; Bacteriology; Cell biology; Ecology; Floriculture; Genetics; Landscape architecture; Paleobotany; Plant anatomy; Plant growth; Plant morphogenesis; Plant pathology; Plant physiology; Plant taxonomy.
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Antonyms: botany
n
Definition: plant study
Antonyms: zoology
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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: botany
Branch of biology that deals with plants, including the study of the structure, properties, and biochemical processes of all forms of plant life, as well as plant classification, plant diseases, and the interactions of plants with their physical environment. The science of botany traces back to the ancient Greco-Roman world but received its modern impetus in Europe in the 16th century, mainly through the work of physicians and herbalists, who began to observe plants seriously to identify those useful in medicine. Today the principal branches of botanical study are morphology, physiology, ecology, and systematics (the identification and ranking of all plants). Subdisciplines include bryology (the study of mosses and liverworts), pteridology (the study of ferns and their relatives), paleobotany (the study of fossil plants), and palynology (the study of modern and fossil pollen and spores). See also forestry, horticulture.
For more information on botany, visit Britannica.com.
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US History Encyclopedia: Botany
The history of botany in America has several themes: the identification and study of new species discovered in the New World; the transformation of the field away from classification based on morphology, or shape, and toward interest in physiology and, later, genetics; the concomitant specialization and professionalization of botany, a subject that was originally relatively open to amateur practitioners, including women; and the development of American botanical research to rival the initially dominant European centers in England, France, and Germany. The European Renaissance had seen a revival of interest in botany and in ancient botanical works that was aided by the invention of the printing press in 1453, which allowed for a uniformity of plant depictions that hand-drawn manuscripts could not ensure.
Discoveries in the New World
The exploration of the New World, beginning with Columbus's voyage of 1492, was marked by the discovery of new flora and fauna, enthusiastically documented and described by travelers. It was not uncommon for those who wrote about the Americas to describe the plants and animals they had seen in terms of familiar European species, and, indeed, sometimes to mistakenly identify American species as being the same as European species. However, since plants do not move—unlike animals that might offer colonial settlers and travelers only a glimpse before disappearing—many American plants were quickly identified to be distinct from similar species in the Old World. Although Native Americans had developed their own classifications of North American flora, and although Native Americans were often a source of knowledge for colonists learning about the uses of new plants, Europeans tended to impose their own classifications onto the plants of the New World.
At the time, the discovery of new species posed a theological problem for European Christians, as the description of Noah's Ark insisted that Noah had gathered every kind of plant, while the New World contained many plants not part of the European and Asian ecosystems. Questions quickly arose as to whether there had once been a land bridge between the Americas and Eurasia and, even prior to Darwin, whether American plant species were modified variations on European species.
Moreover, some plants from the Americas became quite profitable crops for Europeans, most notably tobacco and chocolate, and many Europeans came over to explore and study the new plants. The first notable publication on the flora of the Americas was by Nicolás Monardes, who never traveled to the New World but wrote on its plants in his 1574 Historia Medicinal, which was translated into English by John Frampton as Joyfull Newes out of the Newe Founde Worlde (1577). The work was primarily concerned with the medicinal benefits of the plants and herbs in the Americas, and, indeed, many of the practitioners of botany in the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and even into the nineteenth centuries were also trained in medicine and were interested in the possible new cures available in undocumented American plants.
However, amateurs also made important contributions to the study of American botanicals, examining the plants in local areas, presenting their findings at botanical societies, swapping samples with other botanists and sending plants back to Europe, and cultivating herbaria and arboreta. From colonial times until the mid-nineteenth century, the work of amateurs in finding, studying, and documenting new species was important to the study of botany as a whole. A primary example is Jane Colden (1724–1766), the daughter of the botanist Cadwallader Colden. Tutored only by her father, Jane Colden studied and drew the plants of New York, classifying hundreds of plants, including the gardenia, which she discovered.
Jane Colden was especially renowned for understanding and using the Linnaean classification scheme. Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish doctor and botanist, developed his hierarchy throughout his life, his most notable publications including the Systema Naturae (1735), GeneraPlantarum (1737), and Species Plantarum (1753). The Linnaean system, which has since been greatly revised, divided animals and plants into kingdoms, classes, orders, genera, and species, all written in Latin. Each species was given a two-part (binomial) name of genus and species.
Classification
Linnaeus's classification system greatly influenced eighteenth-century botany in America. Some of his students came over to categorize the species of the New World, most significantly Pehr Kalm, who traveled through the Great Lakes, the Mid-Atlantic colonies, and Canada, bringing back samples. Meanwhile, colonial settlers like John Bartram (1699–1777), Cadwallader Colden (1688–1776), Humphry Marshall (1722–1801), and others worked to incorporate the local flora into the work of Linnaeus, which provided a new sense of order for those working on studying the plants and animals of the overwhelmingly diverse and novel New World.
But although the Linnaean system was helpful, it could not survive the strain of the thousands of new discoveries in the Americas and Asia. Plant classifications based on reproduction resulted in categories that contained obviously widely diverging plants. In particular, Linnaeus was challenged by French botanists who emphasized grouping plants by shape (morphology). Antoine Laurent de Jussieu's (1748–1836) 1789 Genera Plantarum prompted the reorganizing of classification by appearance and added levels to the taxonomy.
The Jussieu modifications quickly, but not uncontroversially, became added to botanical literature, although the Linnaean system continued to be used in many prominent American publications through the early nineteenth century. Meanwhile, French botanists made other contributions to the study of North American plants. André Michaux (1746–1802) and his son, François André (1770–1855), traveled through much of eastern North America, from Canada to the Bahamas, observing and collecting. The end result of their massive researches was the 1803 Flora Boreali-Americana, the first large-scale compilation of North American plants. The work of the Michaux drew, not uncritically, on the reforms of Jussieu.
Nineteenth-Century American Botanists
The Michaux volumes encouraged revisions, the first coming in 1814 with the Flora Americae Septentrionalis of Frederick Pursh (1774–1820), which incorporated findings from the Lewis and Clark Expedition and thus contained information about western America. Pursh's contemporary, Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859), was born and died in England, but his interest, education, and work in botany were conducted primarily in America, where he explored the south and west, collecting and publishing his findings. Although he is known for his extensive discoveries, Nuttall also wrote the 1818 Genera of the North American Plants and 1827 Introduction to Systematic and Physiological Botany. His work is symbolic of a turn from European-dominated study of North American plants toward American specialists in native species. Although Americans had always played important roles in the discovery, cataloging, and study of local plants, the early and mid-nineteenth century saw the burgeoning of work by American botanists, both amateur and professional. Meanwhile, the American government sponsored expeditions to find and collect plant species in the less studied areas of the south and west of America.
Among the American botanists of the early nineteenth century, the most famous are Jacob Bigelow (1786–1879), Amos Eaton (1776–1842), John Torrey (1796–1873), and Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859). Bigelow, who was trained as a doctor, was primarily interested in the medicinal uses of plants, but he also surveyed the flora of Boston for his Florula Bostoniensis (1814). Additionally, he did work in physiology, which was already a topic of considerable interest in the first decades of the century and would come to dominate morphology in botanical concerns by the end of the nineteenth century.
Amos Eaton gained his reputation primarily through his Manual of Botany (first published in 1817, but revised and enlarged through many editions), which became the basic botanical teaching text of the first half of the nineteenth century. Eaton, who also worked in geology and chemistry, encouraged the participation of women in science, although indeed women were already quite well represented in botany, which he noted. In part this botanical activity by women was due to the fact that contemporary botany required little laboratory equipment: discoveries could be made by anyone who was diligent and well read in botany, and so graduate degrees or access to laboratories—both largely denied at the time to women—were unnecessary to botanical work. However, although Eaton emphasized field work, the most accessible kind of botanical study, he was also part of a trend toward including laboratory experiments.
Eaton's teaching and text were very influential, perhaps most importantly in botany upon John Torrey, whom Eaton met while serving a prison sentence for forgery—a charge he denied. Torrey was the son of a man who worked for the State Prison of New York, and Eaton gave the young Torrey lessons in a variety of scientific subjects, including botany. While Torrey went on to have a career that included work in medicine, geology, mineralogy, and chemistry, he is primarily remembered for his botanical work, cataloging New York flora, collaborating with Asa Gray, creating a renowned herbarium, promoting government-financed expeditions, utilizing—albeit inconsistently—the classification work of John Lindley, and serving as the first president of the Torrey Botanical Society, a group of prominent amateur and professional botanists in New York. The Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Society, which began publication in 1870, is the oldest American botanical journal.
Although Bigelow, Eaton, Torrey, Nuttall, and others did much to encourage and expand knowledge of native plants, it is Asa Gray (1810–1888) who takes center stage in the history of American botany in the nineteenth century. Gray published A Flora of North America (1838–1843) with Torrey, which drew on the Lindley classification system, which was a development from Jussieu's "natural system." Gray's textbooks replaced those of Eaton, and the botanical research center he set up at Harvard cultivated many of the next generation of botanists and encouraged work in anatomy, cellular structure, and physiology, realms that were dominated by German botanists. Interested in East Asian flora as well as that of North America, Gray quickly supported Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory as expounded in the 1859 Origin of Species because he had noticed regional variation himself. This drew him into conflict with another Harvard professor, the zoologist Louis Agassiz, who was a prominent anti-Darwinian. However, evolution soon became a guiding principle in botanical study.
Theoretical Research
The twentieth century saw the rise of American research devoted to the theoretical aspects of botany, areas in which America had typically lagged behind Europe, as American botanists became more involved in experiments, physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics, and less involved in the discovery of new species. While Darwin could not provide an explanation for the origins of variation and the inheritance of characteristics, Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), a Moravian monk, offered hereditary principles based on experiments with pea plants in his Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden (Experiments in plant hybridization; 1865, 1869). Although Mendel's research went unacknowledged until 1900, when rediscovered it was profoundly influential in turning the research edge of botany, which was already moving from morphology to physiology, toward genetics as well. In addition, during the first half of the twentieth century, ecological research, which tied together the plants and animals of a habitat, began to thrive, as evidenced by the work of Henry Chandler Cowles (1869–1939) and others. Mathematics was put to use in the study of plant and animal populations, and in 1942 Raymond Lindeman (1915–1942) demonstrated the "trophic-dynamic aspect" of ecology to show how energy moves from individual to individual through a local environment.
Since the 1960s, plant physiology has looked more to understanding the relationship between plants and their surrounding environment: studying plant reactions to environmental change, both with a look to the evolutionary mechanisms involved and concerning the ongoing degradation of the global environment.
Moreover, the introduction of genetic research has prompted yet another change in taxonomy, with the rise of phylogenetics, in which variation is traced to the genetic level, allowing botanists to reorganize classification by evolutionary relatedness, replacing previous categories. Relatedly, work on population genetics, genetic engineering, and genomics (the study of all of the genes in a DNA sequence) has blossomed since the 1960s, a no-table recent achievement being the completion of the Arabadopsis thaliana genome—the first plant genome completely sequenced—in 2000. Although some of the work was completed by American researchers and partly funded by the American government, the project represents the prominent international collaborations that are shaping botany today, with aid also provided by the European Union and the Japanese government and research carried out in America, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Japan.
Bibliography
Evans, Howard Ensign. Pioneer Naturalists: The Discovery and Naming of North American Plants and Animals. New York: Henry Holt, 1993.
Greene, Edward Lee. Landmarks of Botanical History. Edited by Frank N. Egerton. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983.
Humphrey, Harry Baker. Makers of North American Botany. New York: Ronald Press, 1961.
Keeney, Elizabeth B. The Botanizers: Amateur Scientists in Nineteenth-Century America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
Mauseth, James D. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. 2d ed. Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1998.
Morton, A. G. History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
Reveal, James L. Gentle Conquest: The Botanical Discovery of North America with Illustrations from the Library of Congress. Washington, D.C.: Starwood, 1992.
Stuckey, Ronald L., ed. Development of Botany in Selected Regions of North America before 1900. New York: Arno Press, 1978.
—Caroline R. Sherman
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Columbia Encyclopedia: botany,
science devoted to the study of plants. Botany, microbiology, and zoology together compose the science of biology. Humanity's earliest concern with plants was with their practical uses, i.e., for fuel, clothing, shelter, and, particularly, food and drugs. The establishment of botany as an intellectual science came in classical times. In the 4th cent. B.C., Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus worked out descriptions and principles of plant types and functions that remained the prototype for botanical observation for 1,000 years. During the stagnant period of the Middle Ages the knowledge of the classical scholars was preserved in the European monasteries and by the Arabs in the Middle East. In the 16th and 17th cent. an interest in botany revived in Europe and spread to America by way of European conquest and colonization. At that time both botany and the art of gardening (see garden) stressed the utility of plants for man; the popular herbal, describing the medical uses of plants, mingled current superstition with fact. In the late 17th and the 18th cent. the influence of the ancient scholars was modified by the growth of scientific botany. Through careful and accurate observation the sciences of taxonomy and morphology (see biology) were developed, providing the basis for the first systematic classification of organisms, chiefly in the work of Linnaeus. With the microscope came the development of plant anatomy and research on the cell. New knowledge of the principles of chemistry and physics spurred experimentation in plant physiology, notably the early work of Stephen Hales on the sources and manufacture of plant food, which led to studies of such basic processes as photosynthesis. Modern botany has expanded into all areas of biology, including molecular biology, and has developed such specialties as ethnobotany, which studies the use of plants in preindustrial societies. Perhaps most significant was the work of Mendel in plant breeding at the middle (1859) of the 19th cent., from which grew the science of genetics. Allied with experimental botany are the various practical aspects that have developed into specific scientific disciplines (e.g., agriculture, agronomy, horticulture, and forestry).
Bibliography
See J. von Sachs, History of Botany (tr. 1890, repr. 1967); C. L. Wilson and W. E. Loomis, Botany (4th ed. 1967); C. B. Lees, Gardens, Plants and Man (1970); A. G. Morton, History of Botanical Science (1981).
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History 1450-1789: Botany
From antiquity into the late eighteenth century, the medical utility of plants provided the primary motive for studying them. However, from the late fifteenth century on, other reasons for the investigation of plants became increasingly important and gave botany a disciplinary and professional identity distinct from medicine. These included: explicating classical texts; portraying plants accurately in works of art; collecting rarities for natural history cabinets, gardens, and museums; exploiting natural resources; glorifying the wonders of creation; and satisfying the curiosity of natural philosophers. The primary thrust of botany in early modern Europe was plant identification, description, and classification, an effort that culminated in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when systematics assimilated morphology, reproduction, anatomy, and geography.
Late Fifteenth Century to Mid-Sixteenth Century
While editing the ancient authorities on medicinal plants—Pliny's Natural History and Dioscorides' De Materia medica (On the materials of medicine)—in the late fifteenth century, Italian humanists looked at living plants to resolve textual problems. In contrast to medieval doctors' dependence on illiterate herb-gatherers, medical humanists in the early sixteenth century strove to emulate Dioscorides' and Galen's firsthand experience with medicinal plants.
The lack of a shared vocabulary for plant description and nomenclature was circumvented by the addition of accurate, detailed, naturalistic woodcut illustrations to printed herbals—a key innovation introduced by Otto Brunfels's (1488–1534) Herbarum Vivae Eicones (Living images of plants, 1530) and Leonhard Fuchs's (1501–1534) Historia Stirpium (Notable commentaries on the history of plants, 1542), and imitated by virtually every herbal thereafter. The failure of Leonardo da Vinci's (1452–1519) superb drawings and observations of plant forms—unfinished at his death in 1519—to influence early modern botany underscores the scientific consequences of coupling the technology of printing to skill in depicting plants.
Beginning in the 1530s, medical schools at Padua, Pisa, Basel, and Montpellier established chairs of botany, required lectures, demonstrations, and field trips, and built botanical gardens. Students of Luca Ghini (1500–1556), professor of botany at Bologna and Pisa, spread his technique of preserving pressed, dried specimens throughout Europe.
Mid-Sixteenth Century to Early Seventeenth Century
The humanist physicians' desire to prescribe the precise plants named by classical authorities spurred Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1501–1578), a Habsburg court physician, to prepare a voluminous illustrated commentary on Dioscorides (first edition, 1544), the best-selling herbal of the period. Its revisions and enlargements helped Renaissance botanists realize that they knew far more plants than their ancient counterparts.
The immense "universal" herbals of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century—published or projected by major botanists from most European countries, including William Turner (c. 1508–1568), Conrad Gessner (1516–1565), Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605), Jacques Dalechamps (D'Aléchamps, Dalechampius, 1513–1588), Charles de L'Escluse (Clusius, 1526–1609), Matthias de L'Obel (Lobelius, 1538–1616), Rembert Dodoens (Dodonaeus, 1517–1585), Jean Bauhin (1541–1612), Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), and John Gerard (1564–1637)—represented efforts to describe both long-familiar plants and the flood of new species. Plants entered European gardens and herbaria through the voyages of discovery and conquest and by exploration of local habitats. Informal networks of professional and amateur enthusiasts surmounted religious and political divisions and fostered a rapid international exchange of specimens, books, pictures, and observations.
To organize their entries, most herbals used a pragmatic mixture of systems, grouping some plants by their uses, others by similarities of form or habitats. Some herbals, emblem books, and books on natural magic—reflecting astrology, Paracelsan chemistry, and the search for symbolic significance in nature—stressed plants' hidden, inner properties, manifested by distinctive external "signatures." Appealing to Aristotle and Theophrastus's philosophical emphasis on growth and reproduction as the essential characteristics of the vegetative soul, Andrea Cesalpino (Caesalpinus, 1524–1603) stressed resemblances of seeds and fruits in grouping plants in his influential De Plantis Libri XVI (On plants, 1583).
Early Seventeenth Century to Late Eighteenth Century
Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), professor of botany and anatomy at Basel, took the first critical step toward a single botanical lexicon of plant names: his Pinax Theatri Botanici (Pinax, i.e., Index, for the botanical realm, 1623) summarized the synonyms and literature for some six thousand plants—ten times the number in Dioscorides—and assigned them brief descriptive Latin names that emphasized their affinities. (Pinax remains an indispensable guide to identifying plants in earlier works.) An equally important step came from Joachim Jung's (1587–1657) astute analysis of plant parts, which reached John Ray (1627–1705)—English cleric, naturalist, natural philosopher, and fellow of the Royal Society—by 1660 in manuscript. Between 1660 and 1704, Ray linked taxonomy, nomenclature, morphology, and bibliography in a series of strictly botanical books that brought together first-hand accounts of many previously undescribed plants, new technical terminology (such as petal, calyx, cotyledon), close observations of growth and form, and deep reflection on method.
Ray spelled out the combinations of essential morphological features that defined natural classes of plants. While acknowledging natural groupings at least at the genus/species level (categories that went back to Aristotle), the French botanist, J. P. de Tournefort (1656–1708), countered with a convenient and widely adopted artificial system of classification based primarily on the disposition of flower parts.
The chemical composition of plants and the form and function of plant parts, previously regarded as unimportant, came under the scrutiny of botanists trained in iatrochemistry—notably Guy de la Brosse (1586–1641), the founder of the Paris Jardin des Plantes in 1640—and in microscopy. Robert Hooke (1635–1703) and Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) in England and Marcello Malphighi (1628–1694) in Italy reported to the Royal Society in the late seventeenth century on their experimental investigations of plant cells and tissue structures. Stephen Hales (1677–1761) in the 1720s and Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) and Jan Ingen-Housz (1730–1799) half a century later devised chemical and physical experiments to measure plant nutrition and metabolism.
The demonstration of sexual reproduction in flowering plants—in an obscure 1694 publication, De Sexu Plantarum Epistola (On the sex of plants), by Rudolf Jacob Camerer (Camerarius), professor of medicine at Tübingen—both resolved a longstanding question and provided the brilliant Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) with the basis of a taxonomic system that overrode all earlier proposals.
Believing that God had created species and genera, Linnaeus embedded their essential characters in his binomial nomenclature—henceforth giving the terms "genus" and "species" distinctive scientific meanings. Although Linnaeus clearly recognized larger natural groupings (plant families were methodically elucidated by the French botanists Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu [1748–1836] and Michel Adanson [1727–1806] in the late eighteenth century), his Species Plantarum (Species of plants, 1753) constructed a deliberately artificial system of classification, easily understood by anyone—even "ladies"—who could count the sexual parts of flowers. By imposing a common language and rational organization on the plant kingdom, Linnaeus made botany both a symbol of divine order and the epitome of Enlightenment science.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Bauhinus, Casparus. Pinax Theatri Botanici. Basel, 1623.
Brunfelsius, Otho. Herbarum Vivae Eicones. Strasbourg, 1530.
Camerarius, Rudolphus Jacobus. De Sexu Plantarum Epistola. Tübingen, 1694.
Caesalpinus, Andreas. De Plantis Libri XVI. Florence, 1583.
Linnaeus, Carl. Species Plantarum. London, 1957–1959. A facsimile of the first edition, 1753.
Meyer, Frederick G., Emily Emmart Trueblood, and John L. Heller. The Great Herbal of Leonhart Fuchs: Vol. 1, Commentary; Vol. 2, De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes, 1542: Facsimile. Stanford, 1999.
Secondary Sources
Arber, Agnes. Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution: A Chapter in the History of Botany, 1470–1670. 3rd ed. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1986. Facsimile reprint of second edition (1938), with an introduction and annotations by William T. Stearn.
Findlen, Paula. Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Berkeley, 1994.
Koerner, Lisbet. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge, Mass., 1999.
Morton, A. G. History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day. London and New York, 1981.
Reeds, Karen Meier. Botany in Medieval and Renaissance Universities. New York, 1991.
—KAREN REEDS
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Science Dictionary: botany
The scientific study and categorization of plants. (See fruit, photosynthesis, and plant kingdom.)
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Devil's Dictionary: botany
A cynical view of the world by Ambrose Bierce
n.
The science of vegetables -- those that are not good to eat, as well as those that are. It deals largely with their flowers, which are commonly badly designed, inartistic in color, and ill- smelling.
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Gardener's Dictionary: botany
The science or study of plants.
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Wikipedia: Botany
For other meanings, see Botany (disambiguation)
Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort
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Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort
Example of a cross section of a stem [1]
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Example of a cross section of a stem [1]
Botany is the scientific study of plant life. As a branch of biology, it is also called plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between the different groups. The study of plants and botany began with tribal lore, used to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms.
Scope and importance of botany
Hibiscus
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Hibiscus
As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life.
Historically, botany covers all organisms that were not considered to be animals. Some of these "plant-like" organisms include fungi (studied in mycology), bacteria and viruses (studied in microbiology), and algae (studied in phycology). Most algae, fungi, and microbes are no longer considered to be in the plant kingdom. However, attention is still given to them by botanists, and bacteria, fungi, and algae are usually covered in introductory botany courses.
The study of plants has importance for a number of reasons. Plants are a fundamental part of life on Earth. They generate the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Plants also absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, a minor greenhouse gas that in large amounts can effect global climate. It is believed that the evolution of plants has changed the global atmosphere of the earth early in the earth's history and paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:
* Produce food to feed an expanding population
* Understand fundamental life processes
* Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments
* Understand environmental changes more clearly
Human nutrition
Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.
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Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.
Virtually all foods eaten come from plants, either directly from staple foods and other fruit and vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. Plants are the fundamental base of nearly all food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere and convert them into a form that can be consumed and utilized by animals, this is what ecologists call the first trophic level. Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations, for example through plant breeding. Botanists also study weeds, plants which are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location. Weeds are a considerable problem in agriculture, and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and native ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people.
Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of modern genetics from his studies of plants.
Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of modern genetics from his studies of plants.
Fundamental life processes
Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like cell division and protein synthesis for example) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, who was studying the way pea shape is inherited. What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, Barbara McClintock discovered 'jumping genes' by studying maize. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.
Medicine and materials
Many medicinal and recreational drugs, like cannabis, caffeine, and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products; for example aspirin is based on the pain killer salicylic acid which originally came from the bark of willow trees.[2] There may be many novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and tea also come from plants. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as barley malt and grapes.
Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and rubber. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant. Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and other plants with a highly-fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels, see biodiesel.
Environmental changes
Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways.
* Understanding habitat destruction and species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of plant systematics and taxonomy.
* Plant responses to ultraviolet radiation can help us monitor problems like the ozone depletion.
* Analyzing pollen deposited by plants thousands or millions of years ago can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of climate change research.
* Recording and analyzing the timing of plant life cycles are important parts of phenology used in climate-change research.
* Lichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as pollution indicators.
In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners canary', an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of plants every day.
Etymology
From Greek βοτάνη = "pasture, grass, fodder", perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat.
History
The traditional tools of a botanist.
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The traditional tools of a botanist.
Early examples of plant taxonomy occur in the Rigveda, that divides plants into Vrska (tree), Osadhi (herbs useful to humans) and Virudha (creepers). which are further subdivided. The Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes, Visakha (spreading branches), Manjari (leaves with long clusters), Sthambini (bushy plants), Prastanavati (which expands); Ekasrnga (those with monopodial growth), Pratanavati (creeping plants), Amsumati (with many stalks), and Kandini (plants with knotty joints). The Taittiriya Samhita and classifies the plant kingdom into vrksa, vana and druma (trees), visakha (shrubs with spreading branches), sasa (herbs), amsumali (a spreading or deliquescent plant), vratati (climber), stambini (bushy plant), pratanavati (creeper), and alasala (those spreading on the ground).
Manusmriti proposed a classification of plants in eight major categories. Charaka Samhitā and Sushruta Samhita and the Vaisesikas also present an elaborate taxonomy.
Parashara, the author of Vrksayurveda (the science of life of trees), classifies plants into Dvimatrka (Dicotyledons) and Ekamatrka (Monocotyledons). These are further classified into Samiganiya (Fabaceae), Puplikagalniya (Rutaceae), Svastikaganiya (Cruciferae), Tripuspaganiya (Cucurbitaceae), Mallikaganiya (Apocynaceae), and Kurcapuspaganiya (Asteraceae). [2]
Among the earliest of botanical works, written around 300 B.C., are two large treatises by Theophrastus: On the History of Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer Dioscorides provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants.
In ancient China, the recorded listing of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes spans back to at least the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. There was the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) written work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Ji of the 2nd century. There was also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo, who compiled treatises on herbal medicine and included the use of mineralogy.
Important medieval works of plant physiology include the Prthviniraparyam of Udayana, Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara, Saddarsana-samuccaya of Gunaratna, and Upaskara of Sankaramisra. [3]
In 1665, using an early microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue. The German Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors Nicholas Culpeper and John Gerard published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants.
In 1754 Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus) devided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. One, the Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).[3]
Modern botany
A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying model plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its genome sequenced. The sequencing of the rice (Oryza sativa) genome and a large international research community have made rice the de facto cereal/grass/monocot model. Another grass species, Brachypodium distachyon is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially-important staple foods like wheat, maize, barley, rye, pearl millet and soybean are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two haploid (n) sets of chromosomes, a condition known as polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a single-celled, green alga) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology.
In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, major questions such as which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of angiosperms are now understood. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.
Subdisciplines of Botany
* Agronomy—Application of plant science to crop production
* Bryology—Mosses, liverworts, and hornwarts
* Economic botany—The place of plants in economics
* Ethnobotany—Relationship between humans and plants
* Forestry—Forest management and related studies
* Horticulture—Cultivated plants
* Paleobotany—Fossil plants
* Palynology—Pollen and spores
* Phycology - Algae
* Phytochemistry—Plant secondary chemistry and chemical processes
* Phytopathology—Plant diseases
* Plant anatomy—Cell and tissue structure
* Plant ecology—Role of plants in the environment
* Plant genetics—Genetic inheritance in plants
* Plant morphology—Structure and life cycles
* Plant physiology—Life functions of plants
* Plant systematics—Classification and naming of plants
See also
Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769
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Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769
* History of plant systematics
* History of phycology
* Botanical garden and List of botanical gardens
* Dendrochronology
* List of domesticated plants
* Edible Flowers
* Flowers and List of flowers
* Forestry
* Herbs
* List of botanical journals
* List of botanists
* List of botanists by author abbreviation
* List of systems of plant taxonomy
* List of publications in biology
* Paleobotany
* Palynology
* Plant anatomy
* Seeds
* Plant physiology
* Plant community
* Plant sexuality
* Soil science
Part of a series on
Horticulture and Gardening
RegaderaMetalica.jpg
Gardening
Gardening • Garden • Botanical garden • Arboretum • Botany • Plant
Horticulture
Horticulture • Agriculture • Urban agriculture • City farm • Organic farming • Herb farm • Hobby farm • Intercropping • Farm
Customs
Harvest festival • Thanksgiving • History of agriculture
Plant protection
Phytopathology • Pesticide • Weed control
* Trees
* Vegetation
* Weed Science
References
1. ^ Winterborne J, 2005. Hydroponics - Indoor Horticulture [1]
2. ^ Mann, J. (1987). Secondary Metabolism, 2nd ed.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 186-187. ISBN 0-19-855529-6.
3. ^ Hoek, C.van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. 2005. Algae An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0 521 30419 9
* U.S. Geological Survey. National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany
Further reading
Popular science style books on Botany
* Attenborough, David The Private Life of Plants, ISBN 0-563-37023-8
* Bellamy, D Bellamy on Botany, ISBN 0-563-10666-2 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects
* Capon, B: Botany for Gardeners ISBN 0-88192-655-8
* Cohen, J. How many people can the earth support? W.W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0-393-31495-2
* Halle, Francis. In praise of plants ISBN 0-88192-550-0. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants.
* King, J. Reaching for the sun: How plants work ISBN 0-521-58738-7. A fluent introduction to how plants work.
* Pakenham, T: Remarkable Trees of the World (2002) ISBN 0-297-84300-1
* Pakenham, T: Meetings with Remarkable Trees (1996) ISBN 0-297-83255-7
* Pollan, M The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6300-4 Account of the co-evolution of plants and humans
* Thomas, B.A.: The evolution of plants and flowers St Martin's Press 1981 ISBN 0-312-27271-5
* Walker, D. Energy, Plants and Man ISBN 1-870232-05-4 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis
Academic and Scientific books on Botany
* Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W & Jones, R.L. (2000) Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9
* Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). Studies in plant survival. Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01475-X
* Crawley, M. J. (1997). Plant ecology. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0-632-03639-7
* Ennos, R and Sheffield, E Plant life, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant biodiversity
* Fitter, A & Hay, R Environmental physiology of plants 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3
* Lambers, H., Chapin, F.S. III and Pons, T.L. 1998. Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-98326-0
* Lawlor, D.W. (2000) Photosynthesis BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6
* Matthews, R. E. F. Fundamentals of plant virology Academic Press,1992.
* Mauseth, J.D.: Botany : an introduction to plant biology. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook
* Morton, A.G. (1981). History of Botanical Science.Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-12-508382-3 (paperback)
* Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: Biology of Plants, Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6, A first year undergraduate level textbook
* Richards, P. W. (1996). The tropical rainforest. 2nd ed. C.U.P. (Pbk) ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32.50
* Ridge, I. (2002) Plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925548-2
* Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: Plant physiology Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0-534-15162-0
* Stace, C. A. A new flora of the British Isles. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0-521-58935-5
* Strange, R. L. Introduction to plant pathology. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84973-8
* Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (1998). Plant physiology. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0
* Walter, H. (1985). Vegetation of the earth. 3rd rev. ed. Springer.
* Willis, K (2002) The evolution of plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99
External links
Wikiversity
At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Botany at:
The Department of Botany
Wikibooks
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Botany
* Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation
* plant growth and the plant cell from Kimball's Biology Pages
* Botanical Society of America: What is Botany?
* Science and Plants for Schools
* Teaching Documents about Botany Teaching documents, lecture notes and tutorials online: an annotated link directory.
* American society of plant biologists APSB
* Why study Plants? Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge
* Botany Photo of the Day
Flora and other plant catalogs or databases
* The Virtual Library of Botany
* High quality pictures of plants and information about them from Catholic University of Leuven
* Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 1790-1856
* The Trees Of Great Britain and Ireland, by Henry John Elwes & Augustine Henry, 1906-1913
* Botanik-Datenbank (ger.)
* Plant Directory (ger.)
* USDA plant database
* The Linnean Society of London
* Native Plant Information Network
Botany
Subdisciplines of botany Ethnobotany · Paleobotany · Plant anatomy · Plant ecology · Plant morphology · Plant physiology
Plants Evolutionary history of plants · Algae · Bryophyte · Pteridophyte · Gymnosperm · Angiosperm
Plant parts Flower · Fruit · Leaf · Meristem · Root · Stem · Stoma · Vascular tissue · Wood
Plant cells Cell wall · Chlorophyll · Chloroplast · Photosynthesis · Plant hormone · Plastid · Transpiration
Plant life cycles Gametophyte · Plant sexuality · Pollen · Pollination · Seed · Spore · Sporophyte
Plant taxonomy Botanical name · Botanical nomenclature · Herbarium · IAPT · ICBN · Species Plantarum
Category · Project · Portal
Major subtopics of biology
Anatomy - Astrobiology - Biochemistry - Bioinformatics - Botany - Cell biology - Ecology - Developmental biology - Evolutionary biology - Genetics - Genomics - Marine biology - Human biology - Microbiology - Molecular biology - Origin of life - Paleontology - Parasitology - Pathology - Physiology - Taxonomy - Zoology
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Translations: Translations for: Botany
Dansk (Danish)
n. - botanik
n. - kamgarn, merinould
Nederlands (Dutch)
botanie, plantkunde
Français (French)
n. - botanique
n. - laine mérinos (d'Australie)
Deutsch (German)
n. - Botanik, Pflanzenkunde
n. - Merino Wolle (vor allem Australien)
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - βοτανική, φυτολογία
Italiano (Italian)
botanica
Português (Portuguese)
n. - botânica (f)
Русский (Russian)
ботаника
Español (Spanish)
n. - botánica
n. - lana merina de Australia
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - botanik
中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
植物学
植物学
中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 植物學
n. - 植物學
한국어 (Korean)
n. - 식물학, 전체 식물
n. - 오스트레일리아 산의 최고급 메리노 양모
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 植物学, 一地域の植物, 一地域の植物の生態
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) علم النبات
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - תורת הצומח, בוטניקה
n. - צמר של כבשי מרינו, בייחוד מאוסטרליה
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kph
MENANTI KELAHIRAN BAYI UNGGUL
Ini bukan cerita tentang kelahiran bayi yang sesungguhnya, tapi bayi Departemen Kehutanan yang sebentar lagi akan lahir dan sangat ditunggu-tunggu kelahirannya untuk menjawab permasalahan Kehutanan di Bali yaitu Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH).
LATAR BELAKANG
Bali merupakan wilayah kepulauan dengan luasan 563.268 Ha dan tercatat ± 124.000 Ha berupa Hutan ( 23,4 % ) yang kondisinya secara riel dari waktu ke waktu mengalami tekanan dan degradasi. Berdasarkan kondisi Bali merupakan Ekosistem Pulau maka didalam manajemen Pengelolaan Ekosistem harus berpikir Orientasi Satu kesatuan Manajemen (Komando). Skala prioritas Pengeloaan harus mengarah pada Prinsip Ekologi, kemudian prioritas masalah Sosial selanjutnya orientasi Ekonomi.
Kawasan Hutan di Kabupaten Jembrana berada pada kelompok Hutan Yeh Leh Yeh Lebah (RTK 12) seluas 2.813,00 Ha dan Kelompok Hutan Bali Barat (RTK 19) seluas 38.494,27 Ha. Luas Kawasan Hutan di Kabupaten Jembrana adalah 41.307,27 Ha atau 7, 48 % dari Luas Pulau Bali; atau 31,61 % dari luas Kawasan Hutan Pulau Bali; atau 49,07 % dari luas daratan Kab. Jembrana. Kawasan Hutan hampir 80,471 % berupa Kawasan fungsi Lindung. Berdasarkan Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Kabupaten Jembrana kawasan tersebut disepakati dipertahankan sebagai Penyangga Sistem Kehidupan wilayah Bawahan. Dalam Pembangunan sektor ekonomi , Bidang Pertanian sebagai tulang punggung pembangunan bidang ekonomi sangat tergantung pada kondisi tata lingkungan dan tata air serta Ekosistem wilayah Hulu sebagai sarana pendukung Produksi. Oleh sebab itu kondisi Lingkungan di Wilayah Hulu Jembrana mutlak dipertahankan .
Kondisi saat ini diperkirakan sekitar 30 - 40 % Hutan diwilayah hulu Jembrana dalam keadaan rusak akibat adanya usaha illegal perubahan fungsi terhadap keberadaan fungsi Hutan tersebut, hal ini terjadi sebagaian besar pada Hutan fungsi lindung di Jembrana.
Berkaitan dengan posisi Hutan Jembrana dan degradasi Hutan yang terjadi saat ini, penanganan perbaikan kondisi lingkungan sebagaimana diatas perlu diselenggarakan secara sinergi, termasuk sitem penyelenggaraan Kelembagaan dalam menangani masalah yang sangat kompleks ini.
PERMASALAHAN
Aspek permasalahan kompleks yang sementara ini terjadi adalah :
1. Aspek Tehnis
Pengaturan dan Implementasi pembagian Blok pada areal Kawasan Hutan Fungsi Lindung sesuai PP 34 Tahun 1999 yang kemudian disempurnakan lagi dengan keluarnya Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan, belum dilaksanakan di lapangan. Pola Tehnik tentang Peluang Pengelolaan dan Pemanfaatan Ruang dalam Kawasan Hutan belum dirancang dan direalisir. Penyusunan Rencana Jangka Panjang dan Pendek Pengelolaan Hutan Jembrana ( khususnya Kawasan Hutan Lindung ) yang seyogianya diselenggarakan oleh Kepala Kesatuan Pemangkuan Hutan Pengelolaan Hutan ( KPH ), belum dilaksanakan. Dokumen tersebut seharusnya digunakan sebagai Pedoman Pelaksanaan serta Pedoman di tingkat Lapangan.
Pembagian Blok yang dimaksudkan sesuai ketentuan pengaturan dalam PP No. 6 Tahun 2007 adalah pembagian Blok dalam Kawasan Hutan Lindung yang terdiri dari Blok Inti, Blok Lindung dan Blok Pemanfaatan/Penyangga. Pada Blok Pemanfaatan/Penyangga inilah perlu dijabarkan serta diperjelas seberapa jauh akses masyarakat sekitar Hutan “ diperkenankan “ melakukan aktifitas didalam areal Kawasan Hutan yaitu menyangkut akses fasilitasi, sebagai berikut :
a. Seberapa Pembagian Ruang yang diperkenankan diakses masyarakat untuik beraktifitas di dalam areal Kawasan Hutan Lindung.
b. Bagaimana perihal Hak dan Kewajiban dalam Pengelolaan Hutan
c. Seberapa Kontribusi Manfaat bagi Masyarakat maupun bagi Pemerintah bila benar diperkenankan Mengelola Hutan yang diijinkan
Ketiga aspek yang memerlukan kejelasan pengaturan bagi masyarakat ini sangat diperlukan dalam pelaksanaan ditingkat lapangan. Hal ini belum direalisasikan di lapangan. Dampak yang dirasakan adalah terjadinya kesulitan dalam mengakses secara legal masyarakat yang akan difasilitasi memanfaatkan Kawasan Hutan tersebut.
2. Aspek Sosial
a. Pola perilaku dan sikap masyarakat yang berorientasi konsumeristis dan global tidak bisa dihindari
b. Oknum Pemodal/Mafia Perkayuan, memanfaatkan kondisi ekonomi masyarakat miskin/pendapatan rendah diajak, diarahkan terlibat dalam sindikasi iilegal logging sebagai pelaku/pekerja pencurian kayu, perencekan, pengawenan alih fungsi lahan dalam Hutan negara.
c. Tersumbatnya akses peranan ekonomi masyarakat dalam memanfaatkan sumberdaya Hutan, memicu pemahaman melihat sumberdaya alam Hutan sebagai alternatif untuk pemenuhan kebutuhan hidup primer yang “segera”.
3. Aspek Ekonomi
a. Kondisi Perekonomian Masyarakat sekitar Hutan relatif lemah, peluang serta kesempatan usaha dan bekerja sangat terbatas, kondisi ini sangat rentan terhahap “ Ajakan “ untuk melakukan tindakan kejahatandan diajak konspirasi dalam tindakan illegal .
b. Kebutuhan bahan baku hasil Hutan kayu bagi Industri di Bali sangat tinggi, utamanya jenis kayu pertukangan dan kayu langka, menjadikan kayu sebagai komoditi langka dan mahal dan dicari banyak pihak dari segi Bisnis. Kondisi ini merangsang masyarakat lemah ekonomi tertarik dan Nekad melakukan tindakan illegal mengambil hasil Hutan secara paksa dalam Hutan negara.
4. Aspek Penataan Wilayah
Jauh sebelum program Pemetaan, Penunjukkan, Penataan Batas serta Penetapan Kawasan Hutan Negara ( Thn 1970 an ), masyarakat penyanding Hutan telah melakukan kegiatan pemanfaatan Hutan Tutupan ( Milik Pemerintah/Negara yang belum ditata ).
Hasil tanaman Budidaya/Produktif dalam Kawasan Hutan tutupan ( Negara ) tersebut dimasa yang lalu ( th. 1970 – 1985 ), oleh Pemerintah dilakukan Pungutan Retribusi terhadap Hasil Tanaman Budidaya/Produktif “ Illegal “ tersebut, sehingga masyarakat merasa menjadi “ Legal “ terhadap apa yang dilakukan secara “ illegal “ itu.
Dalam perkembangannya pada Dekade Pasca 1998 ( Dekade Euforia Reformasi ), Kawasan Hutan banyak dijarah , dialihfungsikan menjadi areal Tanaman Budidaya dan Tanaman yang tidak sesuai dengan Fungsi Hutan, dikerjakan secara illegal dengan dalih dampak Sosial, Ekonomi maupun Politik. Pemberlakuan Konsep Hutan Kemasyarakatan yang ditafsirkan tidak tegas, memberi peluang masyarakat semaunya menggunakan Kawasan Hutan tanpa ijin.
Dipihak lain Pemerintah Daerah melalui Produk Hukum Peraturan Daerah (Perda 7 Tahun 2002 tentang RTRW) telah mengarahkan dan mengatur Penataaan Ruang baik Kawasan Lindung maupun Kawasan Budidaya, namun dalam pelaksanaannya tidak diindahkan masyarakat dan tidak ada sanksi hukum yang signifikan dapat mencegah pelanggaran itu.
5. Aspek Budaya
Masyarakat belum sepenuhnya menerapkan konsep kecintaan terhadap alam lingkungan sebagaimana amanah dalam penerapan konsep Tri Hita Karana. Banyak konflik kepentingan antara melaksanakan konsep kecintaan Lingkungan yang erat hubungannya dengan kecintaan pada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa/SangHyangWidhiwasa dengan kebutuhan mendesak/primer yaitu keperluan hidup primer sehari hari.
Demikian pula keanekaragaman latar belakang, budaya masyarakat di wilayah Bali Bagian Barat dengan berbagai sikap pemahaman/keyakinan pada kecintaan Lingkungan, sangat beragam dan kompleks serta heterogen.
6. Aspek Politik
Kelompok Masyarakat yang telah lama memanfaatkan secara illegal Hutan negara, dijadikan sasaran sebagai kelompok massa pendukung bagi oknum/Calon pimpinan yang bermaksud mencari dukungan massa untuk dapat/berhasil dipilih menjadi salah satu Jabatan Strategis. Kesempatan ini dijadikan possisi tawar bila diperoleh dukungan secara significan maka kesempatam menggunakan Hutan Negara untuk “ Ngawen (illegal) “ bagi kelompok masyarakat pendukung tersebut, akan “ diperjuangkan keberlanjutannya “. Hal ini bisa terjadi disetiap lini Masa Pemilihan figur Pimpinan Kelompok Masyarakat, mulai Pemilihan Pimpinan Formal ataupun Non Formal (TOMA) dari tingkat bawah samapi tingkat atas dan seterusnya.
7. Aspek Kelembagaan
Memperhatikan Bali merupakan Ekosistem Pulau maka Manajemen Pengelolaa Hutan di Bali sejak dulu menganut prinsip Komando, dimana secara Hirarhi Pengurusan Hutan langsung ditangani Propinsi Bali. Ditingkat lapangan hanya merupakan kepanjangan tangan Propinsi. Organisasi Pelaksana Pengurusan Hutan di tingakt lapangan ( Kabupaten ) hanya berstatus Bagian Kesatuan Manajeman. Saat ini hanya berupa setingkat Resort Polisi Hutan yang bobot tugasnya diarahkan pada Aspek Keamanan Gangguan Kawasan Hutan. Tugas tugas lain dalam konteks aspek lingkup Pengelolaan Hutan, belum tertangani secara maksimal. Dalam sistem kelembagaan pengawasan Hutan seperti ini, dirasakan belum dapat berjalan optimal.
KEGIATAN KEHUTANAN JEMBRANA
Dari 5 kegiatan pokok Pengelolaan Hutan Indonesia, kegiatan pengelolaan Hutan di Kabupaten Jembrana prioritas dilaksanakan 3 kegiatan yaitu 1) Perlindungan dan Konservasi Alam; 2) Rehabilitasi dan Reklamasi Hutan; 3) Pemanfaatan Hutan. Kegiatan Pemanfaatan Hutan belum dapat dilaksanakan secara optimal karena terkendala kelembagaan pengelolaan hutan dan penataan kawasan hutan serta pola kegiatan yang belum berjalan sebagaimana mestinya.
1. Perlindungan dan Konservasi Alam
Selama periode Tahun 2001 s/d 2007 telah mengamankan barang kayu temuan sebanyak 16.803 batang atau 996,900 M3 dengan rincian sebagai berikut :
Sampai dengan bulan Mei 2008, jumlah kayu yang masih tersimpan di TPK Kab. Jembrana sejumlah ± 315 M3 dan sebagian besar merupakan jenis kayu yang tidak diperkenankan untuk dilelang dan harus dimusnahkan karena berasal dari Kawasan Hutan Lindung.
Pengamanan tersangka pelaku tindak kejahatan Bidang Kehutanan baik oleh Tim PGKH, Jajaran Kepolisian, Satgas Polhut Mobile Bali Barat maupun bantuan masyarakat sebanyak 295 kasus dengan rincian sebagaimana grafik berikut :
Sedangkan perkembangan Putusan Pengadilan terus mengalami peningkatan jumlah lamanya hukuman kurungan bagi tersangka. Hal ini diharapkan akan mampu memberikan efek jera bagi pelaku kejahatan bidang Kehutanan. Salah satu kasus bidang Kehutanan yang paling menonjol di Kabupaten Jembrana yaitu dengan tertangkapnya cukong/mafia kayu paling berpengaruh dan telah diganjar dengan hukuman selama 2 Tahun penjara dan denda Rp. 5.000.000,- (hasil putusan kasasi pengadilan). Namun kasusnya masih berjalan karena pihak penuntut umum mengajukan banding atas putusan tersebut yang masih lebih rendah dibanding tuntutan awal yaitu hukuman kurungan 3,5 Tahun Penjara. Perkembangan lama hukuman kurungan putusan Pengadilan Negeri Jembrana dari Periode Tahun 2001 s/d 2007 dapat dilihat pada grafik berikut :
Grafik Perkembangan Putusan Pengadilan Dalam Kasus Bidang Kehutanan
2. Rehabilitasi dan Pemanfaatan Hutan
Adapun kegiatan Rehabilitasi dan reklamasi Hutan yang telah dilaksanakan adalah sebagai berikut :
* Program Inovatif (Penanaman Bambu) seluas 33,20 Ha dari bantuan Bank Dunia pada Kawasan Hutan Lindung yang didampingi oleh LSM Yayasan Kalimajari.
* Hutan Kayu Perpatungan seluas 383 Ha di Hutan Produksi Tetap (HPT) yang bekerjasama dengan desa Pakraman.
* Rehabilitasi Hutan Lindung seluas 75 Ha di Kec. Melaya yang melibatkan Kelompok Tani Penyanding Hutan.
* Gerakan Nasional Rehabilitasi Hutan & Lahan (GERHAN) Tahun 2002 s/d 2007 seluas 3.376 Ha.
* Pemeliharaan Trubusan Hutan Produksi Terbatas seluas 125 Ha di RPH Penginuman Kec. Melaya Th. 2004 – 2005.
* Puncak Penghijauan dan Konservasi Alam (PPKAN)
* Pembuatan Demplot Sumber Benih secara swakelola di Kec. Melaya.
* Pembinaan Pengusaha Hutan Rakyat
* Pembibitan dan penanaman Program Bali Hijau
* Rehabilitasi Pengganti Kawasan Hutan Mangrove PT. BTID dan Angkasa Pura di Desa Budeng dan Kelurahan Loloan Timur.
* Kegiatan penanaman Penghijauan Lingkungan, Wanita Menanam dan Pelihara Pohon, Pekan Penanaman dan Pelihara Pohon, serta Penanaman Swadaya di Kabupaten Jembrana Tahun 2007 dialokasikan sebanyak 332.000 batang bibit.
POTRET PENGELOLAAN HUTAN LINDUNG JEMBRANA
1. Kondisi Kawasan HutanLindung RTK 12 dan 19 Jembrana
Pengelolaan Hutan Lindung Kabupaten Jembrana dititik beratkan pada fungsi Perlindungan Sistem Penyangga Kehidupan Daerah Bawahan, namun pada kenyataannya sebagian areal Hutan sekitar 27 % tidak berfungsi optimal karena terjadinya perubahan secara fisik dan mengakibatkan terjadinya perubahan fungsi Hutan menjadi Kawasan Budidaya. Berdasar Catatan Kawasan HutanLindung di wilayah RPH yang berstatus fungsi lindung RTK 12 dan 19 ( RPH Candikusuma, Tegalcangkring, Yeh Embang dan Pulukan ) saat ini diperkirakan 26,82 % atau 8.914,14 Ha dari luas 33.240,27 Ha luasan Kawasan Hutan Lindung telah rusak.
2. Sejarah Pengelolaan Hutan Lindung RTK 12 dan 19 Kabupaten Jembrana.
Degradasi areal Hutan fungsi Lindung di RPH Wilayah kabupaten Jembrana (RTK 12 dan 19) yang cukup parah tersebut tidak terlepas dari sejarah pengelolaan kawasan tersebut. Masuknya masyarakat luar Jembrana pada masa lampau secara histori saat Dewan Raja raja (Th. 1940–an) membuka peluang pembukaan areal untuk pemukiman bagi Penduduk dari luar Jembrana yaitu dengan memanfaatkan Kawasan HutanNegara Fungsi Lindung sebagai areal pemukiman dan perkebunan. Dalam perkembangan ternyata hal ini telah menimbulkan permasalahan penggunaan Kawasan Hutanyang berlangsung sampai saat ini. Kondisi ini kemudian semakin bertambah dengan adanya kebijaksanaan Pemerintah Daerah tentang Sistem pengelolaan Hutan yang memberi peluang dan legalitas bagi masyarakat untuk mengelola areal Hutan Lindung dengan sistem bagi hasil, tanpa didasari oleh sistem pengelolaan pemanfaatan Hutan secara menyeluruh di Kawasan Hutan di Bali. Akibatnya timbul kesenjangan dan kecemburuan sosial di beberapa wilayah yang memicu terjadinya kerusakan dan degradasi Hutan lebih lanjut. Beberapa contoh kegiatan yang melegal kan masyarakat sekitar Kawasan Hutandalam memanfatkan areal Hutan antara lain :
1. Tahun 1975 Pemerintah mengambil langkah kebijaksanaan bahwa Kopi pelanggaran tidak perlu dirabas dengan pertimbangan bahwa kopi adalah tanaman keras tidak menyebabkan longsor dan erosi dipertiimbangkan baik untuk pengaturan tata air. Hasil pemetikannya diambil alih Pemerintah yang ditangani oleh Dinas yang menangani KeHutanan dengan tujuan agar tidak menimbulkan Kecemburuan Sosial di masyarakat dan pelanggaran tidak semakin meluas lagi. Kemudian oknum penduduk yang mempunyai pelanggaran (tanah garapan) diminta juga kontribusi kepada Pemerintah yang hasilnya terus mengalami peningkatan. Dalam perkembangannya sejak itu mulailah pelanggaran besar-besaran. Masyarakat yang sebenarnya tidak terdaftar mempunyai pelanggaran juga ikut menyetor sesuai dengan target tetapi kompensasinya mereka melakukan perambasan untuk ditanami kopi dan pisang sebagai wahana pembukaan lahan baru dalam areal Hutan Lindung. Pada waktunya Kebijakan ini dihentikan, namun dilapangan sudah terlanjur berkembang secara pesat. Di Wilayah RPH Pulukan Luas Hutan Lindung 6.665,88 Ha, diprediksi 90 % telah berubah Penampilan menjadi fungsi Budi Daya tanaman Keras dan Industri.
2.Tahun 1999/2000 di wilayah Kampung Jawa, Kampung Medahan, Arca, Baler Setra yang difasilitasi sebuah LSM dengan berdalih konsep Hutan Kemasyarakatan, 90 % masyarakat yang memperoleh dukungan Bandesa Adat ngawen di Hutan secara serentak melakukan penanaman dalam Kawasan Hutandengan menanami selain jenis tanaman Produktif dan tanaman Kayu kayuan yang menghasilkan buah juga jenis Pisang, Coklat, Kopi dll.
3.Unit Organisasi / Lembaga Pengelolaan Hutan di Tingkat Tapak.
Pada hakekatnya bahwa kegiatan Penyelenggaraan Pengelolaan Hutan pada Kawasan Hutan Negara telah diamanatkan dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 34 Tahun 2002 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Pemanfaatan Hutan, Penggunaan Kawasan Hutan yang kemudian diperbaharui Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan.
Kegiatan Pengelolaan Hutan ini, meliputi kegiatan :
1. Tata Hutan dan penyusunan rencana pengelolaan Hutan;
2. Pemanfaatan Hutan;
3. Penggunaan kawasan Hutan;
4. Rehabilitasi dan reklamasi Hutan; serta
5. Perlindungan Hutan dan konservasi alam.
Dalam rangka pengelolaan Hutan untuk memperoleh manfaat yang optimal dari Hutan dan Kawasan Hutanbagi kesejahteraan masyarakat, maka pada prinsipnya semua Hutan dan Kawasan Hutan harus dikelola dengan tetap memperhatikan sifat, karakteristik dan keutamaannya, serta tidak dibenarkan mengubah fungsi pokoknya yaitu fungsi konservasi, lindung dan produksi. Oleh karena itu dalam pengelolaan Hutan perlu dijaga keseimbangan ketiga fungsi tersebut sesuai dengan hasil penetapan fungsi Kawasan Hutan.
Undang-undang Nomor 41 Tahun 1999 tentang KeHutanan mengamanatkan pembentukan Wilayah Pengelolaan Hutan pada tingkat unit pengelolaan, yang dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 34 Tahun 2002 belum diatur sehingga pelaksanaannya tidak berjalan secara baik, bahkan banyak menimbulkan Kawasan Hutantidak terkelola dengan baik. Memperhatikan perkembangan di atas maka perlu segera diatur kembali pengelolaan Hutan sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip pengelolaan Hutan lestari melalui pembangunan Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH) serta pengaturan Penyelenggaraan Pengelolaan Hutan. KPH yang dibangun merupakan kesatuan pengelolan Hutan terkecil sesuai fungsi pokok dan peruntukannya yang dapat dikelola secara efisien dan lestari bertanggung jawab terhadap pelaksanaan tata Hutan dan penyusunan rencana pengelolaan Hutan serta penyelenggaraan pengelolaan Hutan.
Sementara itu, saat ini di Propinsi Bali, rencana Peraturan Daerah Propinsi Bali tentang Pembentukan Unit Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan melalui pembentukan Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan ( KPH ) telah dipersiapkan dan saat ini telah sampai pada proses penggodokan di DPRD Propinsi Bali. Menurut rencananya Kawasan Hutandi Bali akan dibagi dalam 3 unit pengeloaan yang terdiri atas KPH Bali Barat, KPH Bali Tengah dan KPH Bali Timur.
Pembentukan KPH ini diharapkan dapat menjawab segala permasalahan terkait dengan Penyelenggaraan Pengelolaan Hutan yang saat ini banyak mengalami gangguan. Sesuai dengan konsep Pembangunan KeHutanan Prop. Bali bahwa Hutan Bali diposisikan sebagai Sistem Penyangga Kehidupan yang merupakan satu kesatuan ekologi atau biasa disebut sebagai Ekosistem Pulau.
a.Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan
Berdasarkan hasil Tata Hutan pada setiap unit atau Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH) ini dilaksanakan kemudian disusun Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan dengan memperhatikan aspirasi, partisipasi dan nilai budaya masyarakat serta kondisi lingkungan setempat. Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan terdiri atas :
1. Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan Jangka Panjang dalam jangka 20 tahun. Rencana ini disusun oleh Kepala Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan ( KKPH ), mengacu pada Rencana KeHutanan Nasional, Provinsi maupun Kabupaten.
2.Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan Jangka Pendek untuk masa jangka waktu 1 tahun, disusun oleh Pejabat yang ditunjuk oleh Kepala KPH. Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan Jangka Pendek ini disusun berdasarkan Rencana Pengelolaan Jangka Panjang .
Setelah adanya penyempurnaan melalui Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan, maka Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan dilaksanakan mangacu PP tersebut.
b.Pemanfaatan Hutan Pada Kawasan Hutan Lindung
Pemanfaatan Hutan bertujuan untuk memperoleh manfaat yang optimal bagi kesejahteraan seluruh masyarakat secara berkeadilan dengan tetap menjaga kelesarian Hutan. Arah dan tujuan pemanfaatan Hutan itu sendiri yaitu pemnafatan Hutan secara lestari. Pemanfatan Hutan secara lestari harus memenuhi kriteria indikator pengelolaan Hutan secara lestari yang mencakup aspek ekonomi, sosial dan ekologi. Kriteria indikator pengelolaan Hutan secara lestari ini akan diatur melalui Keputusan Menteri.
Pemanfaatan Hutan pada Hutan Lindung dapat berupa : a) Pemanfaatan Kawasan; b) Pemanfaatan Jasa Lingkungan, atau c) Pemungutan Hasil Hutan bukan kayu dan hanya dapat dilakukan pada Blok Pemanfaatan yang sampai saat ini pembagian blok ini belum diselenggarakan. Prinsip utama Pemanfaatan Hutan Lindung yaitu tidak mengurangi fungsi utama kawasan sebagai kawasan lindung.
Jika dicermati lebih jauh pemanfaatan Hutan pada Hutan Lindung dimaksudkan untuk mendorong terciptanya pemberdayaan masyarakat terutama bagi masyarakat penyanding Hutan agar dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat, sekaligus menumbuhkan kesadaran masyarakat untuk menjaga dan meningkatkan fungsi Hutan lindung sebagai amanah untuk mewujudkan kelestarian sumber daya alam dan lingkungan bagi generasi sekarang dan generasi yang akan datang. Pemanfaatan Hutan yang diatur tersebut juga telah melindungi hak-hak masyarakat atas kekayaan Sumber Daya Hutan. Pola pengelolaan seperti yang diamanatkan dalam Undang-undang dan Peraturan Pemerintah tersebut juga dapat mendorong iklim investasi di daerah yang pada akhirnya akan meningkatkan pendapatan asli daerah, peningkatan daya beli masyarakat, dan kelestarian Hutan.
4. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Setempat
Dalam PP Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 yang mengatur tentang pembentukan KPH juga telah mengatur tentang Pemberdayaan masyarakat sekitar Hutan. Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk mendapatkan manfaat sumber daya Hutan secara optimal dan adil, melalui pengembangan kapasitas dan pemberian akses dalam rangka peningkatan kesejahteraannya. Pemberdayaan masyarakat setempat sebagaimana dimaksud merupakan kewajiban Pemerintah, provinsi, kabupaten/kota yang pelaksanaannya menjadi tanggung jawab kepala KPH. Pemberdayaan masyarakat setempat dapat dilakukan melalui : Hutan desa; Hutan kemasyarakatan; atau kemitraan.
Berdasarkan hal tersebut di atas, kegiatan Pengelolaan Hutan utamanya Pemanfatan Kawasan Hutan Lindung khususnya di RTK 12 dan 19 di Wilayah RPH Kabupaten Jembrana dapat dilaksanakan sebagaimana di atur dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan.
Hal ini akan efektif dilaksanakan apabila Organisasi Kesatuan Pemangkuan Hutan (KPH) sebagai Unit Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan di tingkat Tapak (daerah) telah terbentuk. Organisasi ini nantinya yang akan mengatur Penatataan Hutan ke dalam blok – blok salah satunya blok pemanfaatan yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam rangka pemberdayaan masyarakat sekitar Hutan. Selanjutnya atas dasar penataan pembagian blok-blok tersebut KPH menyusun Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan baik Jangka Panjang maupun Jangka Pendek.
Atas dasar Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan yang disusun KPH, pihak Pemerintah Kabupaten/Kota dapat mengajukan dan melaksanakan kegiatan-kegiatan yang dibutuhkan dalam rangka pemberdayaan masyarakat sekitar Hutan. Dengan pola pengelolaan Kawasan Hutan Lindung seperti ini diharapkan pengelolaan Hutan akan memperoleh manfaat yang optimal dan lestari dari Hutan dan Kawasan Hutan bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat tanpa merubah fungsi pokok Kawasan Hutan. Sehingga pada akhirnya konsep pembangunan KeHutanan Prop. Bali yaitu Hutan sebagai Sistem Penyangga Kehidupan yang merupakan satu kesatuan ekologi atau biasa disebut sebagai ekosistem Pulau, dapat terwujud.
Permasalahan yang ada, bahwa Kehadiran Lembaga Pengelola Hutan di Tingkat Tapak ini mutlak segera dibentuk dan direalisasikan dan didukung segenap Pihak. Bila tidak akan terjadi masa Stagnasi Pembangunan Kehutanan. Diperlukan terobosan serta langkah langkah konkrit semua pihak dalam mensukseskan Pembangunan Kehutanan sebagaimana diamanahkan Peraturan Pemerintah ini.
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1. Written by HamiudinThis e-mail address is being protected from spam bots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it website, on 13-08-2008 15:55
memang banyak program pembangunan kehutanan yg selalu menjadi pertanyaan dan memberi keraguan dalam aplikasinya karena banyaknya faktor "X" yang menyebabkan "Y" tidak dapat berubah banyak. Namun Pembangunan KPH yang diamanatkan dalam PP No. 6 Th 2007 yang mengagendakan pola pembangunan kehutanan melalaui Community Forestry seperti Hutan Desa, HKm, Hutan Kemitraan, dll akan memberi pendekatan yang jelas dalam Pembangunan Kehutanan yang lestari. Pemanfaatan hutan yang terdesentralisasi dan Pengelolaan Hutan yang ter sentralisasi berdasarkan ekosistem daratan yg ada akan menjadikan peran serta dan manfaat langsung bagi masyarakat akan lebih mendekati mereka. Disamping itu perlindungan atas hak2 adat/desa penyanding hutan semakin mendapt tempat. Kita harus akui bahwa keampuhan Hukum Adat dalam pelestarian Hutan ternyata pd sebagian tempat jauh lebih unggul dibanding Hukum Negara. Seperti Suku Badui, Suku Anak Dalam, Sentani, Dayak, dll. Tapi itupun hanya lakality. Pada daerah-daerah tertentu dimana hukum adat/awig-awig hanya menjadi simbol ketika sebagian besar masyarakat desa telah menggantungkan hidupnya pada rusaknya hutan termasuk tokoh masyarakat setempat. lehnya itu perlu sebuah sistem dan wadah untuk mendorong terjaminnya hak-hak masyarakat adat/desa penyanding hutan melalui pemabngunan KPH yg Tata kawasan, perencana, pelaksanaan, dan hasilnya jelas. Jika kita mendalami lebih jauh tentang KPH maka akan terlihat bahwa KPH sama halnya dengan rumah sakit yang akan memberi jaminan kesehatan kepada pasiennya. Pengelolaan dengan model KPH telah menunjukkan prestasinya di Jawa, walaupun masih ada masalah tp memang begitulah program. Bagaimanapun kita harus optimis dengan lahirnya KPH. Soal itu adanya kekurangan dan penyimpangan, itu hanyalah kerjaan oknum tapi secara Grand Strategy, kita telah mempunyai koridor dalam mewujudkan Hutan Lestari, dan kita termasuk IKA SKMA harus bisa menuntut apa yang dirumuskan melalui KPH tersebut.
2. Written by ibk.wiranegaraThis e-mail address is being protected from spam bots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it , on 13-07-2008 19:55
sebagus apapun programnya yang terpenting adalah "hutan lestari" dapat memberi manfaat sebesar2 kemakmuran rakyat seimbang antara pembangunan dan konservasi, saya melihat pembangunan hutan justru mengalami degradasi padahal SDM kehutanan sudah bertambah pintar, apa yang salah? programnya? opini saya programnya dari dulu juga sudah bagus (paling ganti kulit buat judul baru isinya banyak kopi paste atw hasil kanibalan dari beberapa program) cuma saja masalahnya selalu pada aplikasi. ditengarai kurangnya jumlah personel dan faktor alam selalu jadi kambing hitam penyebab kegagalam program2 kehutanan. (padahal biaya planingnya bisa jutaan bahkan ratusan juta). saya melihat faktor moral birokrat kehutanan masih jd faktor penting, mengingat justru orang dalam juga secara tidak langsung ikut sumbang peran akan rusaknya hutan (lewat ijin2 lewat peredaran kayu, keuntungan proyek2, sampai jualan bibit yang tidak jelas mutunya) mungkin cara yang efektif untuk mengatasi masalah 2 kehutanan yaitu dengan menumbuhkan rasa cinta akan hutan dan memandang pohon adalah manusia2 dalam bentuk lain yang juga perlu hidup dan beranak pinak. kita harus mempraktekkan hukum ketertarikan kepada hutan ( jelasnya baca "secret" best seller). khusus buat jembrana, sy optimis dengan bayi ungguknya dari paparan teorinya kayanya uda unggul banget, cm kalo uda lahir tp tingkat rusaknya hutan masih tinggi yg malu siapa?.so...mari dunc kita libatkan desa adat utamanya yang disekitar hutan, ya semisal dengan revisi awig2 desa yang mana didalamnya ada klausul yang mengatur tentang hutan dan pengurusannya secara langsung....jaya SKMA
Ini bukan cerita tentang kelahiran bayi yang sesungguhnya, tapi bayi Departemen Kehutanan yang sebentar lagi akan lahir dan sangat ditunggu-tunggu kelahirannya untuk menjawab permasalahan Kehutanan di Bali yaitu Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH).
LATAR BELAKANG
Bali merupakan wilayah kepulauan dengan luasan 563.268 Ha dan tercatat ± 124.000 Ha berupa Hutan ( 23,4 % ) yang kondisinya secara riel dari waktu ke waktu mengalami tekanan dan degradasi. Berdasarkan kondisi Bali merupakan Ekosistem Pulau maka didalam manajemen Pengelolaan Ekosistem harus berpikir Orientasi Satu kesatuan Manajemen (Komando). Skala prioritas Pengeloaan harus mengarah pada Prinsip Ekologi, kemudian prioritas masalah Sosial selanjutnya orientasi Ekonomi.
Kawasan Hutan di Kabupaten Jembrana berada pada kelompok Hutan Yeh Leh Yeh Lebah (RTK 12) seluas 2.813,00 Ha dan Kelompok Hutan Bali Barat (RTK 19) seluas 38.494,27 Ha. Luas Kawasan Hutan di Kabupaten Jembrana adalah 41.307,27 Ha atau 7, 48 % dari Luas Pulau Bali; atau 31,61 % dari luas Kawasan Hutan Pulau Bali; atau 49,07 % dari luas daratan Kab. Jembrana. Kawasan Hutan hampir 80,471 % berupa Kawasan fungsi Lindung. Berdasarkan Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Kabupaten Jembrana kawasan tersebut disepakati dipertahankan sebagai Penyangga Sistem Kehidupan wilayah Bawahan. Dalam Pembangunan sektor ekonomi , Bidang Pertanian sebagai tulang punggung pembangunan bidang ekonomi sangat tergantung pada kondisi tata lingkungan dan tata air serta Ekosistem wilayah Hulu sebagai sarana pendukung Produksi. Oleh sebab itu kondisi Lingkungan di Wilayah Hulu Jembrana mutlak dipertahankan .
Kondisi saat ini diperkirakan sekitar 30 - 40 % Hutan diwilayah hulu Jembrana dalam keadaan rusak akibat adanya usaha illegal perubahan fungsi terhadap keberadaan fungsi Hutan tersebut, hal ini terjadi sebagaian besar pada Hutan fungsi lindung di Jembrana.
Berkaitan dengan posisi Hutan Jembrana dan degradasi Hutan yang terjadi saat ini, penanganan perbaikan kondisi lingkungan sebagaimana diatas perlu diselenggarakan secara sinergi, termasuk sitem penyelenggaraan Kelembagaan dalam menangani masalah yang sangat kompleks ini.
PERMASALAHAN
Aspek permasalahan kompleks yang sementara ini terjadi adalah :
1. Aspek Tehnis
Pengaturan dan Implementasi pembagian Blok pada areal Kawasan Hutan Fungsi Lindung sesuai PP 34 Tahun 1999 yang kemudian disempurnakan lagi dengan keluarnya Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan, belum dilaksanakan di lapangan. Pola Tehnik tentang Peluang Pengelolaan dan Pemanfaatan Ruang dalam Kawasan Hutan belum dirancang dan direalisir. Penyusunan Rencana Jangka Panjang dan Pendek Pengelolaan Hutan Jembrana ( khususnya Kawasan Hutan Lindung ) yang seyogianya diselenggarakan oleh Kepala Kesatuan Pemangkuan Hutan Pengelolaan Hutan ( KPH ), belum dilaksanakan. Dokumen tersebut seharusnya digunakan sebagai Pedoman Pelaksanaan serta Pedoman di tingkat Lapangan.
Pembagian Blok yang dimaksudkan sesuai ketentuan pengaturan dalam PP No. 6 Tahun 2007 adalah pembagian Blok dalam Kawasan Hutan Lindung yang terdiri dari Blok Inti, Blok Lindung dan Blok Pemanfaatan/Penyangga. Pada Blok Pemanfaatan/Penyangga inilah perlu dijabarkan serta diperjelas seberapa jauh akses masyarakat sekitar Hutan “ diperkenankan “ melakukan aktifitas didalam areal Kawasan Hutan yaitu menyangkut akses fasilitasi, sebagai berikut :
a. Seberapa Pembagian Ruang yang diperkenankan diakses masyarakat untuik beraktifitas di dalam areal Kawasan Hutan Lindung.
b. Bagaimana perihal Hak dan Kewajiban dalam Pengelolaan Hutan
c. Seberapa Kontribusi Manfaat bagi Masyarakat maupun bagi Pemerintah bila benar diperkenankan Mengelola Hutan yang diijinkan
Ketiga aspek yang memerlukan kejelasan pengaturan bagi masyarakat ini sangat diperlukan dalam pelaksanaan ditingkat lapangan. Hal ini belum direalisasikan di lapangan. Dampak yang dirasakan adalah terjadinya kesulitan dalam mengakses secara legal masyarakat yang akan difasilitasi memanfaatkan Kawasan Hutan tersebut.
2. Aspek Sosial
a. Pola perilaku dan sikap masyarakat yang berorientasi konsumeristis dan global tidak bisa dihindari
b. Oknum Pemodal/Mafia Perkayuan, memanfaatkan kondisi ekonomi masyarakat miskin/pendapatan rendah diajak, diarahkan terlibat dalam sindikasi iilegal logging sebagai pelaku/pekerja pencurian kayu, perencekan, pengawenan alih fungsi lahan dalam Hutan negara.
c. Tersumbatnya akses peranan ekonomi masyarakat dalam memanfaatkan sumberdaya Hutan, memicu pemahaman melihat sumberdaya alam Hutan sebagai alternatif untuk pemenuhan kebutuhan hidup primer yang “segera”.
3. Aspek Ekonomi
a. Kondisi Perekonomian Masyarakat sekitar Hutan relatif lemah, peluang serta kesempatan usaha dan bekerja sangat terbatas, kondisi ini sangat rentan terhahap “ Ajakan “ untuk melakukan tindakan kejahatandan diajak konspirasi dalam tindakan illegal .
b. Kebutuhan bahan baku hasil Hutan kayu bagi Industri di Bali sangat tinggi, utamanya jenis kayu pertukangan dan kayu langka, menjadikan kayu sebagai komoditi langka dan mahal dan dicari banyak pihak dari segi Bisnis. Kondisi ini merangsang masyarakat lemah ekonomi tertarik dan Nekad melakukan tindakan illegal mengambil hasil Hutan secara paksa dalam Hutan negara.
4. Aspek Penataan Wilayah
Jauh sebelum program Pemetaan, Penunjukkan, Penataan Batas serta Penetapan Kawasan Hutan Negara ( Thn 1970 an ), masyarakat penyanding Hutan telah melakukan kegiatan pemanfaatan Hutan Tutupan ( Milik Pemerintah/Negara yang belum ditata ).
Hasil tanaman Budidaya/Produktif dalam Kawasan Hutan tutupan ( Negara ) tersebut dimasa yang lalu ( th. 1970 – 1985 ), oleh Pemerintah dilakukan Pungutan Retribusi terhadap Hasil Tanaman Budidaya/Produktif “ Illegal “ tersebut, sehingga masyarakat merasa menjadi “ Legal “ terhadap apa yang dilakukan secara “ illegal “ itu.
Dalam perkembangannya pada Dekade Pasca 1998 ( Dekade Euforia Reformasi ), Kawasan Hutan banyak dijarah , dialihfungsikan menjadi areal Tanaman Budidaya dan Tanaman yang tidak sesuai dengan Fungsi Hutan, dikerjakan secara illegal dengan dalih dampak Sosial, Ekonomi maupun Politik. Pemberlakuan Konsep Hutan Kemasyarakatan yang ditafsirkan tidak tegas, memberi peluang masyarakat semaunya menggunakan Kawasan Hutan tanpa ijin.
Dipihak lain Pemerintah Daerah melalui Produk Hukum Peraturan Daerah (Perda 7 Tahun 2002 tentang RTRW) telah mengarahkan dan mengatur Penataaan Ruang baik Kawasan Lindung maupun Kawasan Budidaya, namun dalam pelaksanaannya tidak diindahkan masyarakat dan tidak ada sanksi hukum yang signifikan dapat mencegah pelanggaran itu.
5. Aspek Budaya
Masyarakat belum sepenuhnya menerapkan konsep kecintaan terhadap alam lingkungan sebagaimana amanah dalam penerapan konsep Tri Hita Karana. Banyak konflik kepentingan antara melaksanakan konsep kecintaan Lingkungan yang erat hubungannya dengan kecintaan pada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa/SangHyangWidhiwasa dengan kebutuhan mendesak/primer yaitu keperluan hidup primer sehari hari.
Demikian pula keanekaragaman latar belakang, budaya masyarakat di wilayah Bali Bagian Barat dengan berbagai sikap pemahaman/keyakinan pada kecintaan Lingkungan, sangat beragam dan kompleks serta heterogen.
6. Aspek Politik
Kelompok Masyarakat yang telah lama memanfaatkan secara illegal Hutan negara, dijadikan sasaran sebagai kelompok massa pendukung bagi oknum/Calon pimpinan yang bermaksud mencari dukungan massa untuk dapat/berhasil dipilih menjadi salah satu Jabatan Strategis. Kesempatan ini dijadikan possisi tawar bila diperoleh dukungan secara significan maka kesempatam menggunakan Hutan Negara untuk “ Ngawen (illegal) “ bagi kelompok masyarakat pendukung tersebut, akan “ diperjuangkan keberlanjutannya “. Hal ini bisa terjadi disetiap lini Masa Pemilihan figur Pimpinan Kelompok Masyarakat, mulai Pemilihan Pimpinan Formal ataupun Non Formal (TOMA) dari tingkat bawah samapi tingkat atas dan seterusnya.
7. Aspek Kelembagaan
Memperhatikan Bali merupakan Ekosistem Pulau maka Manajemen Pengelolaa Hutan di Bali sejak dulu menganut prinsip Komando, dimana secara Hirarhi Pengurusan Hutan langsung ditangani Propinsi Bali. Ditingkat lapangan hanya merupakan kepanjangan tangan Propinsi. Organisasi Pelaksana Pengurusan Hutan di tingakt lapangan ( Kabupaten ) hanya berstatus Bagian Kesatuan Manajeman. Saat ini hanya berupa setingkat Resort Polisi Hutan yang bobot tugasnya diarahkan pada Aspek Keamanan Gangguan Kawasan Hutan. Tugas tugas lain dalam konteks aspek lingkup Pengelolaan Hutan, belum tertangani secara maksimal. Dalam sistem kelembagaan pengawasan Hutan seperti ini, dirasakan belum dapat berjalan optimal.
KEGIATAN KEHUTANAN JEMBRANA
Dari 5 kegiatan pokok Pengelolaan Hutan Indonesia, kegiatan pengelolaan Hutan di Kabupaten Jembrana prioritas dilaksanakan 3 kegiatan yaitu 1) Perlindungan dan Konservasi Alam; 2) Rehabilitasi dan Reklamasi Hutan; 3) Pemanfaatan Hutan. Kegiatan Pemanfaatan Hutan belum dapat dilaksanakan secara optimal karena terkendala kelembagaan pengelolaan hutan dan penataan kawasan hutan serta pola kegiatan yang belum berjalan sebagaimana mestinya.
1. Perlindungan dan Konservasi Alam
Selama periode Tahun 2001 s/d 2007 telah mengamankan barang kayu temuan sebanyak 16.803 batang atau 996,900 M3 dengan rincian sebagai berikut :
Sampai dengan bulan Mei 2008, jumlah kayu yang masih tersimpan di TPK Kab. Jembrana sejumlah ± 315 M3 dan sebagian besar merupakan jenis kayu yang tidak diperkenankan untuk dilelang dan harus dimusnahkan karena berasal dari Kawasan Hutan Lindung.
Pengamanan tersangka pelaku tindak kejahatan Bidang Kehutanan baik oleh Tim PGKH, Jajaran Kepolisian, Satgas Polhut Mobile Bali Barat maupun bantuan masyarakat sebanyak 295 kasus dengan rincian sebagaimana grafik berikut :
Sedangkan perkembangan Putusan Pengadilan terus mengalami peningkatan jumlah lamanya hukuman kurungan bagi tersangka. Hal ini diharapkan akan mampu memberikan efek jera bagi pelaku kejahatan bidang Kehutanan. Salah satu kasus bidang Kehutanan yang paling menonjol di Kabupaten Jembrana yaitu dengan tertangkapnya cukong/mafia kayu paling berpengaruh dan telah diganjar dengan hukuman selama 2 Tahun penjara dan denda Rp. 5.000.000,- (hasil putusan kasasi pengadilan). Namun kasusnya masih berjalan karena pihak penuntut umum mengajukan banding atas putusan tersebut yang masih lebih rendah dibanding tuntutan awal yaitu hukuman kurungan 3,5 Tahun Penjara. Perkembangan lama hukuman kurungan putusan Pengadilan Negeri Jembrana dari Periode Tahun 2001 s/d 2007 dapat dilihat pada grafik berikut :
Grafik Perkembangan Putusan Pengadilan Dalam Kasus Bidang Kehutanan
2. Rehabilitasi dan Pemanfaatan Hutan
Adapun kegiatan Rehabilitasi dan reklamasi Hutan yang telah dilaksanakan adalah sebagai berikut :
* Program Inovatif (Penanaman Bambu) seluas 33,20 Ha dari bantuan Bank Dunia pada Kawasan Hutan Lindung yang didampingi oleh LSM Yayasan Kalimajari.
* Hutan Kayu Perpatungan seluas 383 Ha di Hutan Produksi Tetap (HPT) yang bekerjasama dengan desa Pakraman.
* Rehabilitasi Hutan Lindung seluas 75 Ha di Kec. Melaya yang melibatkan Kelompok Tani Penyanding Hutan.
* Gerakan Nasional Rehabilitasi Hutan & Lahan (GERHAN) Tahun 2002 s/d 2007 seluas 3.376 Ha.
* Pemeliharaan Trubusan Hutan Produksi Terbatas seluas 125 Ha di RPH Penginuman Kec. Melaya Th. 2004 – 2005.
* Puncak Penghijauan dan Konservasi Alam (PPKAN)
* Pembuatan Demplot Sumber Benih secara swakelola di Kec. Melaya.
* Pembinaan Pengusaha Hutan Rakyat
* Pembibitan dan penanaman Program Bali Hijau
* Rehabilitasi Pengganti Kawasan Hutan Mangrove PT. BTID dan Angkasa Pura di Desa Budeng dan Kelurahan Loloan Timur.
* Kegiatan penanaman Penghijauan Lingkungan, Wanita Menanam dan Pelihara Pohon, Pekan Penanaman dan Pelihara Pohon, serta Penanaman Swadaya di Kabupaten Jembrana Tahun 2007 dialokasikan sebanyak 332.000 batang bibit.
POTRET PENGELOLAAN HUTAN LINDUNG JEMBRANA
1. Kondisi Kawasan HutanLindung RTK 12 dan 19 Jembrana
Pengelolaan Hutan Lindung Kabupaten Jembrana dititik beratkan pada fungsi Perlindungan Sistem Penyangga Kehidupan Daerah Bawahan, namun pada kenyataannya sebagian areal Hutan sekitar 27 % tidak berfungsi optimal karena terjadinya perubahan secara fisik dan mengakibatkan terjadinya perubahan fungsi Hutan menjadi Kawasan Budidaya. Berdasar Catatan Kawasan HutanLindung di wilayah RPH yang berstatus fungsi lindung RTK 12 dan 19 ( RPH Candikusuma, Tegalcangkring, Yeh Embang dan Pulukan ) saat ini diperkirakan 26,82 % atau 8.914,14 Ha dari luas 33.240,27 Ha luasan Kawasan Hutan Lindung telah rusak.
2. Sejarah Pengelolaan Hutan Lindung RTK 12 dan 19 Kabupaten Jembrana.
Degradasi areal Hutan fungsi Lindung di RPH Wilayah kabupaten Jembrana (RTK 12 dan 19) yang cukup parah tersebut tidak terlepas dari sejarah pengelolaan kawasan tersebut. Masuknya masyarakat luar Jembrana pada masa lampau secara histori saat Dewan Raja raja (Th. 1940–an) membuka peluang pembukaan areal untuk pemukiman bagi Penduduk dari luar Jembrana yaitu dengan memanfaatkan Kawasan HutanNegara Fungsi Lindung sebagai areal pemukiman dan perkebunan. Dalam perkembangan ternyata hal ini telah menimbulkan permasalahan penggunaan Kawasan Hutanyang berlangsung sampai saat ini. Kondisi ini kemudian semakin bertambah dengan adanya kebijaksanaan Pemerintah Daerah tentang Sistem pengelolaan Hutan yang memberi peluang dan legalitas bagi masyarakat untuk mengelola areal Hutan Lindung dengan sistem bagi hasil, tanpa didasari oleh sistem pengelolaan pemanfaatan Hutan secara menyeluruh di Kawasan Hutan di Bali. Akibatnya timbul kesenjangan dan kecemburuan sosial di beberapa wilayah yang memicu terjadinya kerusakan dan degradasi Hutan lebih lanjut. Beberapa contoh kegiatan yang melegal kan masyarakat sekitar Kawasan Hutandalam memanfatkan areal Hutan antara lain :
1. Tahun 1975 Pemerintah mengambil langkah kebijaksanaan bahwa Kopi pelanggaran tidak perlu dirabas dengan pertimbangan bahwa kopi adalah tanaman keras tidak menyebabkan longsor dan erosi dipertiimbangkan baik untuk pengaturan tata air. Hasil pemetikannya diambil alih Pemerintah yang ditangani oleh Dinas yang menangani KeHutanan dengan tujuan agar tidak menimbulkan Kecemburuan Sosial di masyarakat dan pelanggaran tidak semakin meluas lagi. Kemudian oknum penduduk yang mempunyai pelanggaran (tanah garapan) diminta juga kontribusi kepada Pemerintah yang hasilnya terus mengalami peningkatan. Dalam perkembangannya sejak itu mulailah pelanggaran besar-besaran. Masyarakat yang sebenarnya tidak terdaftar mempunyai pelanggaran juga ikut menyetor sesuai dengan target tetapi kompensasinya mereka melakukan perambasan untuk ditanami kopi dan pisang sebagai wahana pembukaan lahan baru dalam areal Hutan Lindung. Pada waktunya Kebijakan ini dihentikan, namun dilapangan sudah terlanjur berkembang secara pesat. Di Wilayah RPH Pulukan Luas Hutan Lindung 6.665,88 Ha, diprediksi 90 % telah berubah Penampilan menjadi fungsi Budi Daya tanaman Keras dan Industri.
2.Tahun 1999/2000 di wilayah Kampung Jawa, Kampung Medahan, Arca, Baler Setra yang difasilitasi sebuah LSM dengan berdalih konsep Hutan Kemasyarakatan, 90 % masyarakat yang memperoleh dukungan Bandesa Adat ngawen di Hutan secara serentak melakukan penanaman dalam Kawasan Hutandengan menanami selain jenis tanaman Produktif dan tanaman Kayu kayuan yang menghasilkan buah juga jenis Pisang, Coklat, Kopi dll.
3.Unit Organisasi / Lembaga Pengelolaan Hutan di Tingkat Tapak.
Pada hakekatnya bahwa kegiatan Penyelenggaraan Pengelolaan Hutan pada Kawasan Hutan Negara telah diamanatkan dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 34 Tahun 2002 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Pemanfaatan Hutan, Penggunaan Kawasan Hutan yang kemudian diperbaharui Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan.
Kegiatan Pengelolaan Hutan ini, meliputi kegiatan :
1. Tata Hutan dan penyusunan rencana pengelolaan Hutan;
2. Pemanfaatan Hutan;
3. Penggunaan kawasan Hutan;
4. Rehabilitasi dan reklamasi Hutan; serta
5. Perlindungan Hutan dan konservasi alam.
Dalam rangka pengelolaan Hutan untuk memperoleh manfaat yang optimal dari Hutan dan Kawasan Hutanbagi kesejahteraan masyarakat, maka pada prinsipnya semua Hutan dan Kawasan Hutan harus dikelola dengan tetap memperhatikan sifat, karakteristik dan keutamaannya, serta tidak dibenarkan mengubah fungsi pokoknya yaitu fungsi konservasi, lindung dan produksi. Oleh karena itu dalam pengelolaan Hutan perlu dijaga keseimbangan ketiga fungsi tersebut sesuai dengan hasil penetapan fungsi Kawasan Hutan.
Undang-undang Nomor 41 Tahun 1999 tentang KeHutanan mengamanatkan pembentukan Wilayah Pengelolaan Hutan pada tingkat unit pengelolaan, yang dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 34 Tahun 2002 belum diatur sehingga pelaksanaannya tidak berjalan secara baik, bahkan banyak menimbulkan Kawasan Hutantidak terkelola dengan baik. Memperhatikan perkembangan di atas maka perlu segera diatur kembali pengelolaan Hutan sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip pengelolaan Hutan lestari melalui pembangunan Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH) serta pengaturan Penyelenggaraan Pengelolaan Hutan. KPH yang dibangun merupakan kesatuan pengelolan Hutan terkecil sesuai fungsi pokok dan peruntukannya yang dapat dikelola secara efisien dan lestari bertanggung jawab terhadap pelaksanaan tata Hutan dan penyusunan rencana pengelolaan Hutan serta penyelenggaraan pengelolaan Hutan.
Sementara itu, saat ini di Propinsi Bali, rencana Peraturan Daerah Propinsi Bali tentang Pembentukan Unit Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan melalui pembentukan Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan ( KPH ) telah dipersiapkan dan saat ini telah sampai pada proses penggodokan di DPRD Propinsi Bali. Menurut rencananya Kawasan Hutandi Bali akan dibagi dalam 3 unit pengeloaan yang terdiri atas KPH Bali Barat, KPH Bali Tengah dan KPH Bali Timur.
Pembentukan KPH ini diharapkan dapat menjawab segala permasalahan terkait dengan Penyelenggaraan Pengelolaan Hutan yang saat ini banyak mengalami gangguan. Sesuai dengan konsep Pembangunan KeHutanan Prop. Bali bahwa Hutan Bali diposisikan sebagai Sistem Penyangga Kehidupan yang merupakan satu kesatuan ekologi atau biasa disebut sebagai Ekosistem Pulau.
a.Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan
Berdasarkan hasil Tata Hutan pada setiap unit atau Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH) ini dilaksanakan kemudian disusun Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan dengan memperhatikan aspirasi, partisipasi dan nilai budaya masyarakat serta kondisi lingkungan setempat. Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan terdiri atas :
1. Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan Jangka Panjang dalam jangka 20 tahun. Rencana ini disusun oleh Kepala Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan ( KKPH ), mengacu pada Rencana KeHutanan Nasional, Provinsi maupun Kabupaten.
2.Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan Jangka Pendek untuk masa jangka waktu 1 tahun, disusun oleh Pejabat yang ditunjuk oleh Kepala KPH. Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan Jangka Pendek ini disusun berdasarkan Rencana Pengelolaan Jangka Panjang .
Setelah adanya penyempurnaan melalui Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan, maka Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan dilaksanakan mangacu PP tersebut.
b.Pemanfaatan Hutan Pada Kawasan Hutan Lindung
Pemanfaatan Hutan bertujuan untuk memperoleh manfaat yang optimal bagi kesejahteraan seluruh masyarakat secara berkeadilan dengan tetap menjaga kelesarian Hutan. Arah dan tujuan pemanfaatan Hutan itu sendiri yaitu pemnafatan Hutan secara lestari. Pemanfatan Hutan secara lestari harus memenuhi kriteria indikator pengelolaan Hutan secara lestari yang mencakup aspek ekonomi, sosial dan ekologi. Kriteria indikator pengelolaan Hutan secara lestari ini akan diatur melalui Keputusan Menteri.
Pemanfaatan Hutan pada Hutan Lindung dapat berupa : a) Pemanfaatan Kawasan; b) Pemanfaatan Jasa Lingkungan, atau c) Pemungutan Hasil Hutan bukan kayu dan hanya dapat dilakukan pada Blok Pemanfaatan yang sampai saat ini pembagian blok ini belum diselenggarakan. Prinsip utama Pemanfaatan Hutan Lindung yaitu tidak mengurangi fungsi utama kawasan sebagai kawasan lindung.
Jika dicermati lebih jauh pemanfaatan Hutan pada Hutan Lindung dimaksudkan untuk mendorong terciptanya pemberdayaan masyarakat terutama bagi masyarakat penyanding Hutan agar dapat meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat, sekaligus menumbuhkan kesadaran masyarakat untuk menjaga dan meningkatkan fungsi Hutan lindung sebagai amanah untuk mewujudkan kelestarian sumber daya alam dan lingkungan bagi generasi sekarang dan generasi yang akan datang. Pemanfaatan Hutan yang diatur tersebut juga telah melindungi hak-hak masyarakat atas kekayaan Sumber Daya Hutan. Pola pengelolaan seperti yang diamanatkan dalam Undang-undang dan Peraturan Pemerintah tersebut juga dapat mendorong iklim investasi di daerah yang pada akhirnya akan meningkatkan pendapatan asli daerah, peningkatan daya beli masyarakat, dan kelestarian Hutan.
4. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Setempat
Dalam PP Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 yang mengatur tentang pembentukan KPH juga telah mengatur tentang Pemberdayaan masyarakat sekitar Hutan. Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk mendapatkan manfaat sumber daya Hutan secara optimal dan adil, melalui pengembangan kapasitas dan pemberian akses dalam rangka peningkatan kesejahteraannya. Pemberdayaan masyarakat setempat sebagaimana dimaksud merupakan kewajiban Pemerintah, provinsi, kabupaten/kota yang pelaksanaannya menjadi tanggung jawab kepala KPH. Pemberdayaan masyarakat setempat dapat dilakukan melalui : Hutan desa; Hutan kemasyarakatan; atau kemitraan.
Berdasarkan hal tersebut di atas, kegiatan Pengelolaan Hutan utamanya Pemanfatan Kawasan Hutan Lindung khususnya di RTK 12 dan 19 di Wilayah RPH Kabupaten Jembrana dapat dilaksanakan sebagaimana di atur dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 6 Tahun 2007 tentang Tata Hutan dan Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan, Serta Pemanfaatan Hutan.
Hal ini akan efektif dilaksanakan apabila Organisasi Kesatuan Pemangkuan Hutan (KPH) sebagai Unit Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan di tingkat Tapak (daerah) telah terbentuk. Organisasi ini nantinya yang akan mengatur Penatataan Hutan ke dalam blok – blok salah satunya blok pemanfaatan yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam rangka pemberdayaan masyarakat sekitar Hutan. Selanjutnya atas dasar penataan pembagian blok-blok tersebut KPH menyusun Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan baik Jangka Panjang maupun Jangka Pendek.
Atas dasar Rencana Pengelolaan Hutan yang disusun KPH, pihak Pemerintah Kabupaten/Kota dapat mengajukan dan melaksanakan kegiatan-kegiatan yang dibutuhkan dalam rangka pemberdayaan masyarakat sekitar Hutan. Dengan pola pengelolaan Kawasan Hutan Lindung seperti ini diharapkan pengelolaan Hutan akan memperoleh manfaat yang optimal dan lestari dari Hutan dan Kawasan Hutan bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat tanpa merubah fungsi pokok Kawasan Hutan. Sehingga pada akhirnya konsep pembangunan KeHutanan Prop. Bali yaitu Hutan sebagai Sistem Penyangga Kehidupan yang merupakan satu kesatuan ekologi atau biasa disebut sebagai ekosistem Pulau, dapat terwujud.
Permasalahan yang ada, bahwa Kehadiran Lembaga Pengelola Hutan di Tingkat Tapak ini mutlak segera dibentuk dan direalisasikan dan didukung segenap Pihak. Bila tidak akan terjadi masa Stagnasi Pembangunan Kehutanan. Diperlukan terobosan serta langkah langkah konkrit semua pihak dalam mensukseskan Pembangunan Kehutanan sebagaimana diamanahkan Peraturan Pemerintah ini.
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1. Written by HamiudinThis e-mail address is being protected from spam bots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it website, on 13-08-2008 15:55
memang banyak program pembangunan kehutanan yg selalu menjadi pertanyaan dan memberi keraguan dalam aplikasinya karena banyaknya faktor "X" yang menyebabkan "Y" tidak dapat berubah banyak. Namun Pembangunan KPH yang diamanatkan dalam PP No. 6 Th 2007 yang mengagendakan pola pembangunan kehutanan melalaui Community Forestry seperti Hutan Desa, HKm, Hutan Kemitraan, dll akan memberi pendekatan yang jelas dalam Pembangunan Kehutanan yang lestari. Pemanfaatan hutan yang terdesentralisasi dan Pengelolaan Hutan yang ter sentralisasi berdasarkan ekosistem daratan yg ada akan menjadikan peran serta dan manfaat langsung bagi masyarakat akan lebih mendekati mereka. Disamping itu perlindungan atas hak2 adat/desa penyanding hutan semakin mendapt tempat. Kita harus akui bahwa keampuhan Hukum Adat dalam pelestarian Hutan ternyata pd sebagian tempat jauh lebih unggul dibanding Hukum Negara. Seperti Suku Badui, Suku Anak Dalam, Sentani, Dayak, dll. Tapi itupun hanya lakality. Pada daerah-daerah tertentu dimana hukum adat/awig-awig hanya menjadi simbol ketika sebagian besar masyarakat desa telah menggantungkan hidupnya pada rusaknya hutan termasuk tokoh masyarakat setempat. lehnya itu perlu sebuah sistem dan wadah untuk mendorong terjaminnya hak-hak masyarakat adat/desa penyanding hutan melalui pemabngunan KPH yg Tata kawasan, perencana, pelaksanaan, dan hasilnya jelas. Jika kita mendalami lebih jauh tentang KPH maka akan terlihat bahwa KPH sama halnya dengan rumah sakit yang akan memberi jaminan kesehatan kepada pasiennya. Pengelolaan dengan model KPH telah menunjukkan prestasinya di Jawa, walaupun masih ada masalah tp memang begitulah program. Bagaimanapun kita harus optimis dengan lahirnya KPH. Soal itu adanya kekurangan dan penyimpangan, itu hanyalah kerjaan oknum tapi secara Grand Strategy, kita telah mempunyai koridor dalam mewujudkan Hutan Lestari, dan kita termasuk IKA SKMA harus bisa menuntut apa yang dirumuskan melalui KPH tersebut.
2. Written by ibk.wiranegaraThis e-mail address is being protected from spam bots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it , on 13-07-2008 19:55
sebagus apapun programnya yang terpenting adalah "hutan lestari" dapat memberi manfaat sebesar2 kemakmuran rakyat seimbang antara pembangunan dan konservasi, saya melihat pembangunan hutan justru mengalami degradasi padahal SDM kehutanan sudah bertambah pintar, apa yang salah? programnya? opini saya programnya dari dulu juga sudah bagus (paling ganti kulit buat judul baru isinya banyak kopi paste atw hasil kanibalan dari beberapa program) cuma saja masalahnya selalu pada aplikasi. ditengarai kurangnya jumlah personel dan faktor alam selalu jadi kambing hitam penyebab kegagalam program2 kehutanan. (padahal biaya planingnya bisa jutaan bahkan ratusan juta). saya melihat faktor moral birokrat kehutanan masih jd faktor penting, mengingat justru orang dalam juga secara tidak langsung ikut sumbang peran akan rusaknya hutan (lewat ijin2 lewat peredaran kayu, keuntungan proyek2, sampai jualan bibit yang tidak jelas mutunya) mungkin cara yang efektif untuk mengatasi masalah 2 kehutanan yaitu dengan menumbuhkan rasa cinta akan hutan dan memandang pohon adalah manusia2 dalam bentuk lain yang juga perlu hidup dan beranak pinak. kita harus mempraktekkan hukum ketertarikan kepada hutan ( jelasnya baca "secret" best seller). khusus buat jembrana, sy optimis dengan bayi ungguknya dari paparan teorinya kayanya uda unggul banget, cm kalo uda lahir tp tingkat rusaknya hutan masih tinggi yg malu siapa?.so...mari dunc kita libatkan desa adat utamanya yang disekitar hutan, ya semisal dengan revisi awig2 desa yang mana didalamnya ada klausul yang mengatur tentang hutan dan pengurusannya secara langsung....jaya SKMA
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